Ubiquitous Technologies and Education

From WikEd

Contributors: Rummanah Aasi, Joelle Anderson, Anthony Clark, Robb Beane, Mitchell Beck, Chris Liang, Brian Randle, Sara Rose, Michelle Torrise, and Deidre Winterhalter

Course: EPS 415: Ethical & Policy Issues in Information Technologies, Summer 2007

Instructors: Professor Nicholas C. Burbules and Jeffrey R. Thibert

Institution: University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

Contents 1 Introduction 2 Requirements for Ubiquitous Technology 2.1 Adequate storage for data 2.2 Central-processing unit speeds 2.3 Display size/quality 2.4 Bit rates in multimedia 2.5 Distributed computing capabilities 2.6 Adequate operating system and software to allow embodied virtuality 2.7 Conclusion 3 Ubiquitous Technology in Daily Lives 3.1 Smart Home 3.2 Presence-in-absence Technology 3.2.1 Mobile Telephones 3.2.2 RFID 3.3 Conclusion 4 Ubiquitous Technology in Business 4.1 Change of Workspace 4.2 Business and RFID 4.2.1 Chain Stores 4.3 Consumer Rights 4.4 Conclusion 5 Ubiquitous Technology in Transportation 6 Ubiquitous Technology in Medicine 6.1 Benefits for people with disabilities 6.2 Medical advancements: Ubiquity enters the body 6.3 Cancer detection through ubiquitous technology 6.4 Conclusion 7 Ubiquitous Technology in Education: Opportunities 7.1 Infrastructure 7.1.1 Funding 7.1.2 Architecture 7.1.3 Learning Environment 7.2 Opportunities with Learners & Personnel 7.2.1 Access to Information 7.2.2 Collaboration & Mobility 7.2.3 Increase in Student Engagement 7.2.4 Individualized Instruction 7.2.5 Continuing Education 7.3 Conclusion 8 Ubiquitous Technology in Education: Challenges 8.1 Lack of Experience, Research, & Pedagogy 8.2 Social Challenges 8.2.1 Exploitation 8.2.2 Reduced Social Interactions 8.2.3 Distractions 8.3 Other Challenges 8.3.1 Financial 8.3.2 Reliability 8.4 Conclusion 9 The School of the Future? 9.1 The School of the Immediate Future 9.1.1 What is Coming? 9.1.2 Possible Scenario 9.2 The School of the Distant Future 9.3 Conclusion 10 Unintended Complexities in Ubiquitous Techonology 10.1 Privacy 10.2 Safety & Security 10.3 Cost 10.4 Boundaries 10.5 Reliability 10.6 Invisibility and Ease of Use 10.7 Conclusion 11 Overall Conclusion 12 Additional Resources & Links 12.1 Keywords 12.2 Research Projects in Ubiquitous Technology 12.3 References

Introduction

Ubiquitous technology, also known as ubiquitous computing, is defined as “a post-desktop model of human-computer interaction in which information processing has been thoroughly integrated into everyday objects and activities." This term was coined by Mark Weiser and his colleagues in their research at the Electronics and Imaging Laboratory of the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center (PARC). The researchers at PARC used the paradigm of one-person one-desktop computer as a foundation to answer questions pertaining to how computers can be embedded within the complex social framework of daily activity, and how they can interplay with the rest of our densely woven physical environment. An ambition for the researchers at PARC during the 1980’s was to reposition computers and their functions into the environmental background rather than front-and-center, which is the location of traditional desktop computers. They envisioned environments conducive to concentration on human-to-human interfaces and away from human-to-computer ones. From there, initial focus and materialization of ubiquitous computing was in the form of "tabs", "pads", and "boards" built at Xerox PARC between the years of 1988-1994.

Currently, researchers around the world are expanding computing and networking technology in the ubiquitous computing framework. Starting in the early 1980’s, this work has been greatly influenced and advanced within all areas of computer science, including hardware components (e.g. chips), network protocols, interaction substrates (e.g. software for screens and pens), applications, privacy, and computational methods. This wiki aims to explore how ubiquitous technology is applied to various aspects of human lives: domestic life, business, medicine, and education. In each of these fields there are positive characteristics and advancements, particularly in the educational field, with the potential to advance society. Along with the benefits of ubiquitous technology, there are also challenges which result from this rapidly growing aspect of modern society. These benefits and challenges need to be closely examined before they are ubiquitously implemented in our society.

Requirements for Ubiquitous Technology

Before beginning the exploration of Ubiquitous Technology in various aspects of human lives, it is important to first understand its requirements. According to Weiser (1991), three elements comprise the technology required for ubiquitous computing. The first element is cheap, low-power computers and accompanying displays. The second element is a network that ties the distributed computers all together. The third and last element is the availability of software systems able to implement and coordinate the ubiquitous applications. Below, these three aspects are expanded to several different components, as each manifests its own challenge to progress toward pervasive everyday computing.

Adequate storage for data

Two ways exist to manage data in a computer: temporary storage and permanent storage. Temporary storage acts as a type of short-term memory, allowing for data to be quickly manipulated by running applications. Its drawback is that it lacks the ability to hold on to this data without electrical support (when the device is turned off, the data is lost). Permanent storage, on the other hand, allows for data to be stored physically for later access but does not support the quick processing afforded by the temporary storage.

Due to the radically different storage mechanisms for each, these storage options present different challenges for the technology developed for ubiquitous computing. The key ideas here are that (a) larger and quicker temporary storage (random access memory - RAM) allows for more operations and applications to occur at the same time with speed and accuracy, and (b) larger and quicker permanent storage (read-only memory – ROM) allows for more data to be stored for future access by one or many computer applications simultaneously. Main goals for further RAM development are increasing circuit speed while decreasing power consumption. As for ROM, decreasing retrieval time is achieved by increasing rotational speed; increasing aerial density to increases capacity. The most advanced magnetic hard disk drive is a 3.5" disk able to store 1 TB.

The most popular of the newest developments in external mass storage is Ultra Density Optical (UDO) disc storage, which utilizes phase change technology combined with a blue violet laser. Current UDO storage measures at 30 GB, but 60 GB and 120 GB versions of UDO are expected to arrive in 2007. Up to 500 GB has been proposed as a possibility for UDO. In theory, UDOs in conjunction with multi-disc changers allows the amount of data stored by a single computing device to be seen as infinite, considerations of retrieval time not withstanding. Other proposed methods for future development in permanent memory storage include phase-change memory, holographic storage, and molecular memory. Weiser (1991) purported that although the space for permanent storage of data need not be essentially infinite, the availability of enormous stashes of storage will allow radically different strategies of information management.

Central-processing unit speeds

Within a central processing unit (CPU), microscopic circuitry performs the main information processing in a computer. It typically consists of a single chip containing a microprocessor core. At the most basic level, a microprocessor is made up of a crystal oscillator, which provides a clock signal to coordinate all of its activities. Increasing the number of operations per second a single microprocessor chip can execute allows the computer to perform simultaneously numerous applications with increased levels of continuity, and to deliver better quality sound, video, and networking performances. Improvements in the quality of the crystal oscillators found in microprocessors have caused the clock speed of the most advanced microprocessors to rise to billions of computer instructions executed every second.

Another strategy for increasing the number of executions per second is the process of duping a single processor chip with more than one microprocessor core. It results in multiplying the potential performance with the number of cores – as long as the operating system and software are designed to take advantage of more than one processor). The first dual-core processors were available for mass-market in 2005. Currently, dual-core processors are widely used in servers, workstations and PCs. Quad-core processors are also available for high-end applications in both the home and professional environments.

Display size/quality

If technology is to indeed become ubiquitous, interfaces for computer usage must not only be viewable at arm’s length on an inch-square screen, but also from across the room on a wall-sized screen. The quality of a digital display is directly related to its pixelation – the more pixels per (square) inch (called ppi), the sharper and therefore better quality image can be displayed. Displays with this higher resolution can display more information in a smaller area to create a much clearer image. With continual increase in usage and popularity, displays continue to decrease in price and increase in levels of resolution and quality.

Bit rates in multimedia

The term “bit rate” is used in digital multimedia to represent the amount of information that is stored per unit of time of a recording – an increase that has a great effect on the detail and quality delivered by the digital file. The main concern about the number of bits used per unit of time to represent a continuous medium such as audio or video after source coding is (a) the avoidance of interruption in the writing or playback of the media, and (b) the playback of the original with no loss of quality due to the data compression process. Users make choices about the certain factors - such as sampling frequency of the original material, the numbers of bits used, schemes used to encode different data, and the algorithms used or degree of data lost during the compression process - in regard to the desired trade-off between bit rate (generally minimized) and enhancing the quality of the file’s contents. Often internet connection speed interferes to a greater degree with delivering an uninterrupted playback than the actual recording devices, indicating that network bandwidth creates a greater hindrance in this area.

Audio quality seems to have hit a ceiling, as providing near-perfect playbacks of the original performance (in recorded as well as real-time) has been achieved. Video, on the other hand, continues to evolve based on perpetual upgrades in the quality of digital recording instruments. While VHS delivers video data at 1 megabits per second, DVD can achieve 5 megabits per second and HDTV has achieved 15 megabits per second. These numbers are expected to increase as computing applications improve in algorithms used to compress file data.

Distributed computing capabilities

Distributed computing is possible given the accessibility of sufficient computer networking and appropriate computer operating systems programmed to monitor data sharing. It deviates greatly from the norm of a program allowed to run on only one computer. In distributed computing, different parts of the same computer program are dispersed to be executed on many computers, communicating with each other over a network, at the same time. Note that distributed computing is different from networked computing – networks allow for computers to be connected to one another, while distributed computing allows such connected computers to work together in more complicated ways (such as program sharing). Implementation of the appropriate hardware, operating systems, and software has been achieved. These computing considerations, however, prove not to be what impedes distributed computing from effective deployment.

Adequate operating system and software to allow embodied virtuality

Weiser (1991) pointed out that current networking, computing, and software capabilities allow a static configuration of computers within a space. He envisioned, however, that “in an embodied virtuality, local devices come and go, and depend upon the room, and the people in it.” He furthers his statement by proposing that adequate operating systems and software are needed to account for new devices at any time without shutting down the entire network every time one leaves or is introduced. Weiser envisions that systems that operate around “microkernels” (contrasted against the traditional monolithic kernels) will allow networks to grow to fit around ubiquitous computing environments that are unpredictably and dynamically changing.

Currently, computer coding within the microkernel has been developed to allow for distributed computing and embodied virtuality. However, problems related to the reliability and security of these microkernels continue to persist. Bugs in the coding of the microkernel and device drivers pose reliability and security risks. It's ironic that we talk about how technology will allow us new freedoms, while at the same time we are creating systems that will make us more dependent on technology and more vulnerable to outside attack. Computer hackers, mechanical breakdown, and natural disaster will put constant pressure on the security of these system, threatening the stability of major global communication systems. Critical networks that are dependent on ubiquitous technologies such as water management and national security are vulnerable to terrorist attacks. Society will be required to make an incredible investment in building a comprehensive information defense system.

A major question: who will be in charge of protecting these networks? Researchers claim that it will be necessary that these security systems garner international support because many networks cross national borders. This will require the coordination of legal systems, harmonization of laws, and a coordinated effort to assist developing nations (Goodman, 23). It is unclear whether this need for an international approach to security will be possible, leaving many local and global systems open to attack as governments negotiate how to apply security in relation to areas of intellectual property and civil rights. Furthermore, conflicting strategic needs and cost negations could further stall negotiations (29). Again, as with distributed computing, the means to the end is available but the unintended consequences and unforeseen complications are still being addressed within these advancements.

In order to predict future technological use, researchers and developers often extrapolate information from usage levels and variations in currently available technology. This, however, continues to be an inadequate method due to the inability to predict: 1. The timeframe of developments in technology because progress is not made logically or uniformly through time, and 2. The way in which humans adopt technology to themselves and adapt themselves to technology. James and Steward (1999) support this by reporting, “ … technological determinist approaches see technical change as the driver or prerequisite for social and economic change. This ignores the social choices inherent in the ways that technologies are selected, implemented and consumed that in turn shape the outcomes of technological change. ” (p 6)

Conclusion

As existing technology improves, it becomes less expensive. Data storage, CPU speeds, and other computer hardware have comfortably outpaced the consumer market’s software needs. As the market becomes saturated with bigger and better hard drives and faster and more portable computers, prices are also on all drop, making them available to a wider pool of consumers. The challenge that faces the spread of ubiquitous technology is creating enough bandwidth to handle all the applications that smart phones and wireless laptops require, but internet providers and cell phone carriers should have enough competition (and consumer dollars at stake) to keep themselves motivated to meet the new demands.

Ubiquitous Technology in Daily Lives

While there are certainly people who used the goals of ubiquitous computing to motivate their efforts to make digital technology fit Weiser’s requirements, often it was the natural progression of technology that came first, allowing ubiquitous computing to soon follow. In turn, the new digital technologies and their omnipresence in people’s lives led to several changes in the ways we communicate and interact with one another in our daily lives.

Edwards and Grinter (2001) noted that there was an increasing “vendor focus on technologies for the home.” Further, they theorized that this was due to the “technology-saturation” of the office market, and it became more tempting for companies to target products for the consumer at home (p. 256). There are two major technological concepts that companies have targeted for the home consumer: “smart home” and “presence-in-absence” products.

Smart Home

“Smart homes” are any residences that are “a physical world that is richly and invisibly interwoven with sensors, actuators, displays, and computational elements, embedded seamlessly in the everyday objects of our lives, and connected through a continuous network” (Björkskog, p.1) Smart Home technology is a market that many companies seem eager to tap into, as the potential for profit is formidable. Even in the 21st century, however, it is a concept that has not completely captured the minds of the everyday consumer. This lack of attention is at least partially due to the expense of such technology, as well as the difficulties of retro-fitting existing homes with smart home technology. In addition, the focus of companies seems to be leaning towards advances in capability, rather than usability, even though usability is a more important factor for the average home (Howard, Kjeldskov, & Skov, 2005, p. 329).

The focus thus far of technology in the home has centered on the conveyance of information, on topics ranging from national news to personal finance. Some high-end refrigerators now come fit with LCD screens in the doors, while companies work on wall displays and digital “pin boards” for in-home use. Future plans for smart homes include location technology that not only tracks the home’s occupants, but is aware when they are sick and is capable of summoning emergency help (Taylor et al, 2005, p. 383). While use of a refrigerator as a posting place is hardly a new concept, it size and status as a high-traffic area in the home make it an ideal candidate for a digital upgrade. Already refrigerators are television capable, and certainly network capability is not far behind. A surface such as a refrigerator or wall display can be used for such things as a “Whereabouts Clock” (similar to Mrs. Weasley’s magical clock in JK Rowling’s Harry Potter series) that can alert occupants to the location of other family members (Taylor, et al, 2005, 389).

Presence-in-absence Technology

Presence-in-absence technologies are designed to support “the experience of an absent significant other being present” (Garnæs, Grünberger, Kjeldskov, & Skov, 2005, p. 403). This concept is not new; writing a letter or making a telephone call are examples of this type of technologies. However, digital networks as well as end user devices are making new methods of receiving long-distance affection possible. Some may seem a bit absurd, such as the suggested “hug-over-a-distance” jacket, which can be inflated by a partner over the internet to emulate the feeling of a real hug (Garnæs et al., 2005, p. 403). Others, such as a pair of picture frames that couples could use to directly communicate affection to one another (through a series of warm colors or emoticons) may be discreet enough and have enough a “cuteness” factor to be accepted into the consumer market (Garnæs et al., 2005, p. 405).

Mobile Telephones

Where presence-in-absence technologies are perhaps being noticed the most, however, is in mobile phone technology. Much like the corporate employer keeping in contact with employees (who suddenly find themselves with a very elastic version of the 40-hour work week), parents are able to use technology in a variety of ways to keep tabs on their children. One may that mobile phone use in the family has changed our concept of “home” as a geographical location is its obvious mobility. “Home” now has a wider reach, “beyond the physical house, meaning that the parent…was the embodiment of ‘home base’” (Palen & Hughes, 2005, p. 339). Parents and care-givers have new flexibility. They can now fulfill the duties of “home” without being bound to the house (Palen & Hughes, 2005, p. 343). A mother no longer has to sit near the phone, waiting for their teenager to check in, now she can be reached whether she’s at work, at the store, or dropping another child off at soccer practice. Further enhancing parental control is the ability to make outgoing calls no matter the time of day, knowing with a direct line there is no need to fear waking up a friend’s entire house at midnight. Pity the poor teenage soul that turns off their phone or allows it to go to voicemail when a concerned parent is calling. Mobile phones, coupled with Global Positioning System (GPS) technology, also allow parents the option to locate their children or family members at any time, or even to define zones that set off an alert if their child’s phone leaves it. The following description of “Chaperone” technology comes from the Verizon Wireless website:

“Chaperone lets you easily locate your family members handset from your Verizon Wireless phone or PC - in real time, at any time.”

Chaperone with Child ZoneSM lets you define a zone - specific area, such as a school or summer camp. When your family member enters or leaves the zone with their handset, Child Zone will automatically send an alert to your phone with the time and location of your family member's handset. (Verizon Wireless, 2007)

Although the technology is intended for parents to watch over children, the leap to jealous spouses using it to keep track of their partners is not a far one. The direct connection between family members that mobile phones allow should not entirely be perceived as a weapon of distrust. Having mobile, ubiquitous channels of communication open at all times often allows parents and kids to connect more easily than in the past. Collect calls, phone cards, or waiting for a land line to become available are becoming obsolete for new college students seeking the comforting voice of “home.” The long drive home for a hardworking parent can now become an opportunity to call and connect with a child (Palen & Hughes, 2005, p. 344).

The omnipresent mobile phone has become such a standard piece of personal equipment in some societies that having a personal phone number, a specific, direct-channel to one individual, can often represent a sense of identity. Palen & Hughes relate the story of Amelie, a woman who moved in with her fiancé. She rarely gave out the home phone as her number, still using her mobile phone number for all matters relating to herself. She felt that it allowed her to maintain a boundary in the relationship “in case it didn’t work out” (Palen & Hughes, 2005, p. 345). Although it often imbues a sense of togetherness, in this case the mobile phone can also represent specific individuality.

Some parents also cite the responsibility that a mobile phone can require as a positive for giving one to their children. Children can learn how to balance minutes, bills, and money (Edwards & Grinter, 2001, p. 265).

Another aspect of mobile phone technology is the “smart phone” that combines a mobile phone with internet access as well as advanced text and e-mail capability. Products such as the Blackberry, Samsung Blackjack, Palm Treo, and Motorola Q are relatively easy to spot due to their large color screens, miniature qwerty-keyboards, and constant presence hands of the stereotypical business person. The newest entry into this competitive market is the Apple iPhone, which combines all of the above with an 8-gigabyte iPod. It has mass-market appeal because of its music capability, as well as its slick “no button” touch-screen interface (Louderback, 2007, p. 9). Whereas before, consumers often carried a separate digital music player and cell phone, by combining them there is one less gadget to clip onto a belt or fill a pocket.

RFID

Another example of presence-in-absence technology is radio frequency identification (RFID) tags. RFID is a technological device that uses radio waves to automatically identify and track individual items. RFID consists of two components: a transponder and interrogator. The transponder or tag carries information, which is located on the object that needs to be identified. The transponder is often made up of a coupling element and an electronic microchip. The interrogator or reader reads the data on the tag (Srivasta, 2005). The usage of RFID is very controversial. One of the purposes of RFID is to safely track and monitor objects. RFID and other presence-in-absence technological devices “allow for a level of organizational transparency that did not exist before, providing us with a greater sense of safety and security” (Gallaway 26). In the post-September 11 world, individuals are highly concerned with security and safety. With new technologies, airports can successfully and accurately scan passenger’s luggage. RFID tags are also used by parents to track children’s whereabouts throughout the day. Currently, in Osaka, Japan, elementary schools are planning to use RFID tags to keep track of their students. The tags will be located on the students' clothes or backpacks. Tag readers will be installed in the school gates and other locations. Although these tags can protect the students from pedophiles, kidnappers, or even get lost along their way home, the privacy of child and parent may still be at risk (Ambash, 2004).

Conclusion

Technology will continue to play a large role in our daily lives. We live in a culture that ever increases its pace and wealth, and as a result manufactures “needs” where previously there were none. All too often those “needs” are voids filled with personal technology. High school hallways were once roamed by students chatting, and the odd handful of kids listening to Walkmans, but now they are moving herds of kids plugged into their iPods, moving to the beat of their own soundtrack and losing social skills. Golfers have played their game for over 500 years without the need of GPS and laser rangefinders to give them automatic, “cheating” yardage. Today, however, a course that does not come with carts fit with LCD screens connected to GPS satellites for perfect yardage to all obstacles is considered, for lack of a better word, “sub-par.” What Twain once referred to as a “good walk spoiled” has become spoiled indeed, as any of the walking or guesswork once required has now been replaced by technology.

However, given the wealth available to so many, we continue to try to keep up with the Joneses. High school kids compare mobile phones now as status symbols the way they used to compare cars, and they value each other’s worth by the amount of gigabytes of storage their iPod has. Adults of course, are victim to technology flaunting too. How often do business men and women wear their Bluetooth ear pieces when they’re not using them, just to fit their self-image? What soccer mom in this day and age really feels complete without a DVD player in the back of the SUV to hypnotize children on the way to practice?

Cost and user-satisfaction will be a determining factor as well. Smart homes will be reserved only for those with more money than practicality, as many home owners will opt to take the extra three seconds to flip a light switch as opposed to saying “lights on” (or clapping). And newer presence-in-absence technologies will not find a niche for some time, as users will find that a remote-triggered “hug” jacket just really isn’t the same as the real thing, and that a heartfelt voice-mail or a simple text is already sufficient to show you’re thinking of someone far away.

Are we really safe with RFID tags? Who is able to monitor and track the citizens? What happens when citizens’ private information is distributed without their awareness? We are told that we live in a post-9/11 world, where security takes precedence over anything else, however, how far we willing to go? Citizens are now in a bind to choose privacy or security. There appears to be no middle ground, and RFID looks like it is here to stay with its rapid growth and uptake by major international corporations. It must be given limitations such as legislations that clearly define the purpose of RFID and alerts the citizens of its presence and someone must be liable for the information present in the RFID tag, in case it is lost.

Dangers of RFID and other presence-in-absence technologies are clearly identified in George Orwell’s novel 1984, which imagines a totalitarian society where the ruling entity, known as Big Brother, constantly monitors and controls its citizens with the help of advanced technology. It is important to note that Orwell chose the phrase “Big Brother” because of its connotation of being warm and protective. However, the government’s intentions are far from familial. For example, giant television screens are set up in every citizen’s house to constantly broadcast propaganda extolling Big Brother's benefits to society. The television screen not only brainwashes the citizens, it keeps an eye on their every move. Hidden microphones are also implanted in homes. Wherever the citizens go, they are constantly made aware of the fact that Big Brother is watching them by ubiquitous signs. Are we getting closer to Orwell’s vision?

Ubiquitous Technology in Business

Change of Workspace

Business is no longer confined to the office or meeting room. Technology, most visibly the smart phone and wireless-equipped laptop, now allows workers to conduct business from nearly any location. As networks increase bandwidth and speed, the level of applications that can be run from remote locations has made “anytime-anywhere computing a reality” (Edwards, 2005, p. 87). Consider the example of Sheryl Padamonsky of Austin, Texas. Three days of the work week she is out of the office of her work. However, a laptop with a webcam enables her to video conference from home, while a smart phone allows her to carry her calendar and corporate e-mail with her at all times, whether she is caring for her elderly parents or is on the treadmill at the gym (Edwards, 2005, p. 87). Technology has not only redefined Padamonsky’s workspace for her, but it has also allowed her to most effectively balance her personal and professional lives. Employers are able to afford their workers more mobility like this because networks that support devices such as smart phones effectively put employees on call 24 hours a day. The devices not only allow employers to contact their workers, but they also give the workers the ability to check their email or view calendars or files no matter the location, whether they’re on a golf course, in an airport, or simply at home. The usefulness of the technology in employers’ minds has made it worthwhile to distribute smart phones, wireless laptops and other devices to employees as much as possible.

Business and RFID

The government is not the only user of RFID technology. Businesses are increasingly using RFID tags and readers. This section will describe some of the major uses and challenges associated with RFID in chain stores.

Chain Stores

According to Srivasta (2005), “RFID represents one of the most significant advances in supply-chain management since the first bar code was scanned in 1974”. RFID tags allow chain stores and other businesses to accurately track their inventory and maintain an accurate record of product information such as expiration dates, contents manufacturer and origin of the product. RFID tags are also used to help decrease theft in the stores, which often occurs in the transportation of the product from the manufacturer to the store itself. Businesses have already begun using RFID. For example, Texas Instruments is collaborating with Ford Motor Company to implement a device like RFID in the cars in order to lower car thefts: "RFID transporters are now in 7 out of 10 cars...car theft is down as much as 75% for Ford's often-targeted Mustang" (Booth-Thomas, 2003).

Consumer Rights

It is highly likely that RFID tags can not only keep track of inventory for businesses, but also make the businesses aware of what products their customers are interested in purchasing. Another example of predictions of a ubiquitous future, the novel Feed envisions a world where the internet has evolved into a “Feednet”, a computer network directly connected to the brains of humans by an implanted computer chip. Through the “feed”, corporations able to monitor thoughts as well as manipulate human desires. For example, they are able to block or interrupt someone’s thoughts by sending the mental equivalent of a pop up ad. Feed asks important concerns that are voiced against ubiquitous technology: How can consumers’ rights be protected? Is the RFID tag our feed?

Consumers are protesting the use of RFID. They claim that devices such as RFID are threatening privacy and civil liberties. Consumer and privacy activists advise businesses to make their customers aware of RFID tags in their products, which are often invisible and seamlessly imbedded in fabrics, plastics, and other various materials (Privacy Rights.org). RFID technology uses unique numbers or codes to identify individual objects, and these tags can also link personal information.

It is important to note that consumers are not against the concept of RFID, but rather how businesses use this technology. Consumer rights activists have proposed a legislation that they feel will help keep their privacy and civil rights. Consumers call for the RFID to be open, which means, the public must be aware of what products are using RFID tags and for what purpose. They also insist that the information collected on the RFID tags must be limited to what is necessary for the project at hand. Another important part of this proposed legislation is the accountability of RFID. Someone must be held legally responsible if the wrong information is given to the wrong hands.

Conclusion

Employers in the fast-paced and high-stakes financial world have everything to gain and nothing to lose by encouraging or requiring employees to carry Blackberries, Treos, or other “smart phones.” It keeps their employees organized and constantly updated on the latest news or market trends thanks to internet capability. Business emails can now be answered while traveling, and employers can keep their employees “on call” around the clock. In essence, their employees are now at their disposal for longer hours of the day without costing them more in salary, and their faster pace of communication and information makes them more productive as well. Where there is money to be made, ubitech answers the call. What it “costs” the employees in terms of their private lives and peace of mind is secondary.

Ubiquitous Technology in Transportation

Have you ever wondered how highway tolls are monitored? Public transportation organizations and commuters are constantly troubled by the time-consuming process of obtaining expensive travel passes and increasing fees. Public transportation systems have implemented the use of RFID in order to limit the headaches of monitoring and facilitating travel for commuters (Srivasta, 2005). Examples of these types of system include the I-Pass and the Chicago Transit Authority “Chicago Card Plus”, which require commuters to register and pay online for unlimited use of transportation. These systems allow commuters to by-pass long lines at toll plazas and other transportation hubs.

Ubiquitous Technology in Medicine

Benefits for people with disabilities

For people with disabilities, innovations in devices have the potential to revolutionize lives through assistive technology. Bracelets and other wearable devices can monitor the well-being of an individual who may be isolated. Devices in the community, able to detect the preferences of the user, have the potential to make daily tasks simpler for people. For instance, an Automated Teller Machine could receive communication from a blind user's wearable technology and be ready to serve that person with audio commands. There are countless ways in which emerging technologies have the potential to serve people with physical limitations.

Medical advancements: Ubiquity enters the body

Advancements in the field of medicine and the decreasing size of machines (i.e., nanomachine), has led to the merging of biology and electronics in the human body (e.g., cyborgs and artificial intelligence). For example, researchers are now investigating ways to use embedded wireless microchips in the body to detect cancer. More fascinating is the potential for doctors to control these chips through wireless technologies, to administer medication, and to destroy cancerous cells (Hack). These nanomachines will travel through unchartered space to explore and conquer. These attributes have led some researchers to refer to these nanotechnologies, fondly, as “nanorangers.”

There are some serious risks associated with this type of technology, however. What happens if the body’s immune system attacks these tiny machines? What happens if these tiny machines themselves attack important cells and organs? Are we creating a robotic cancer? Are we creating an environment that is ripe for the colonization of machines in the human body? Furthermore, what happens when our once natural environments become artificial? Dator sees this as a Transformation Society, one possibility of a ubiquitous society, where humans and their natural environments merge, through the natural evolutionary process and genetic engineering, with artificial environments to form a new hybrid society of post humans (4).

Cancer detection through ubiquitous technology

This reality is not far from being realized. First generation Ubiquitous Biological Communication devices are now being tested as cancer detection methods. Wireless chips that register biochemical changes in the body may be able to detect early states of cancer.

Conclusion

Our medical advancements have far surpassed much of what we have thought as possible. It use to be that people would watch Science Fiction movies and refute the idea of a machine flowing through our bodies, much less a machine containing humans that have been shrunk. Although that example is not completely true, the reality of the situation is that we now have the ability to use nano-machines and other technologies to discover, diagnose, and treat many of society's health ailments. On the same token, however, what exactly does that mean for the future of medical research and technology? Are we truly capable of controlling artificial intelligence? What are the long term effects of these technologies in our bodies? There are many positive possibilities but there are also many unknown outcomes and possible consequences.

As time has gone on, the evolution of the society and its technology has continually defied reason and been a catalyst of change. What has yet to be determined is when that change will come to an end and if it will come to an end. There are many questions that can be asked and situations that can be thought of. As the human race has developed, it seems as though it has been searching for the "holy grail." Every day is devoted, in part, to figuring out a way to prolong life. Every day is a day to attempt to play God in a sense. While it is important to find cures and preventative medicine, it is also important to remember that while we look for remedies, the ultimate remedy should be eradication of unnatural ailments, not just temporary solutions.

Although it seems that all the research being done is done for that cause, it is also hard to believe that is the only motivation. Rather than figure out a way to preserve our brains in a metal body or container, we should instead eradicate our ailments and strive to live naturally and happily. When it comes down to it, our health is all that we have. How much of our health do we really want to rest in the proverbial hands of technology?

Ubiquitous Technology in Education: Opportunities

As the number of students using ubiquitous technologies such as cell phones, and MP3 players increases, the importance of educational integration is magnified. How can this once upon a time, only dreamed about technology be applied to education? There are many opportunities for use of ubiquitous technologies in the classroom, from connecting classes around the world to providing more individualized instruction for students. Like all good things, often times this brings challenges and trade-offs. Integrating ubiquitous technology into education is not a small task. Starting with the infrastructure, and then working its way through the possibilities and challenges, this is a subject that requires funding, analysis, and training to aid in the implementation.

Infrastructure

The basic underlying foundation or base for an organization or system is developed from many sources. We will be referring to the infrastructure of ubiquitous technology as anything needed to institute and support an ubiquitous environment within an organization or school. Such infrastructure will contain, but not be limited to, the following underlying factors: funding, architecture (including design elements), hardware (from student level on up), software, and constructivist learning ideals.

Weiser [1993] claimed that the whole point of ubiquitous computing was to create compelling applications that would drive the development of devices and infrastructure.

Funding

The Federal Communications Commission has a program entitled E-Rate. E-Rate is being monitored by the Schools and Library Division (SLD). The SLD is an independent not-for-profit corporation established to administer universal service for Schools & Libraries. The Schools and Libraries Universal Service support mechanism was established as part of the Telecommunications Act of 1996 with the express purpose of providing affordable access to telecommunications services for all eligible schools and libraries, particularly those in rural and economically disadvantaged areas.[1]

A cost model should be developed at each district and building level. The cost model serves to show in economic terms, what the districts goal for technology integration is. Outlining hardware needs and plans for software curriculum uses, the cost model will be the beginning of the technology plan that will be implemented.

Within The Cost Model: Implementing Technology in New York State Public Schools [2], Dr. Michael Radlick speaks about his plan for the state of New York; “By gaining consensus on a particular vision of technology … we can also develop the tactical approaches to bring it to every school, every classroom, and every student and teacher.”

A similar view of technology integration and funding is echoed in a book by Louis Perelman, School’s Out: Hyperlearning, the New Technology, and the End of Education. Perelman says; “Only by combining a shared strategic vision of technology’s role with a hard-nosed, practical, economically-driven perspective, can we hope to bring the vision of technology’s power to reality.”

Architecture

Operating a technologically advanced classroom in an old building is difficult. Most schools are ill-equipped to support the networking needed for today’s technology. Older buildings have older wiring, both electrical and networked based. While wireless networks are helping the situation, they are still a concern. Rooms that house the district/building servers are not designed for this use, heat and electrical problems are often common. Classrooms do not have room for computers at the student’s desks, not even for laptops. Many rooms do not have enough electrical jacks, and wireless networks often do not penetrate every wing of the building.

In the fall of 2000, the US Department of Education sponsored an online town meeting. This meeting addressed the topic "Modernizing Schools: Technology and Buildings for a New Century." The Education Secretary at the time, Richard Riley, began the discussion by saying: "We need to equip schools with the latest technology to help teachers and students take full advantage of new and exciting tools for learning." We also need to re-imagine schools, he said, increasing their uses by incorporating community technology centers into their design, having them remain open longer, and including all citizens in the school planning and building process. [3]

• The General Accounting Office (GAO) estimated that the cost of bringing the nation's schools into good overall condition was $112 billion.
• The GAO reports revealed that one-third of all schools, serving 14 million students, need extensive repair or replacement.
• The American Society of Civil Engineers says that school construction is now our nation's most urgent infrastructure need.
• About 60 percent (including some schools in a generally adequate condition) of all schools report needing at least one major building feature to be replaced or extensively repaired.
• Elementary and secondary enrollments will swell from 52.2 million in 1997 to 54.4 million in 2006. State and localities will need to build some 6,000 new schools to serve additional students in the next decade.
• Students in school buildings that were in poor condition had achievement 6 percent below students in schools that were in fair condition and 11 percent below students in schools in excellent condition.[4]

As buildings are being built, time needs to be applied to designing schools for a ubiquitous future. If we design for today, they will need redesigning in the future because of changing technological needs.

Learning Environment

Constructivism is based upon the premise that learning is constructed, meaning that a students new learning is built upon their prior knowledge. Each students learning is then different as they all have different experiences and have modified prior knowledge in different ways. As students come in contact with new information, they are to process it, utilizing what they already know or do not know. The new information is then added to or modifies prior knowledge.

A constructivist learning environment is student centered, students are active learners and the teacher becomes a facilitator instead of a lecturer. Teachers are no longer a “sage on the stage”, they are “guides on the side”.

Seven goals for the design of constructivist learning environments (Honebein 1996) [5] (Cunningham, Duffy, & Knuth, 1993; Knuth & Cunningham, 1993):

1. Provide experience with the knowledge construction process;

Students will help to guide the direction for instruction. Ubiquitous technology allows for “on the spot” learning experiences as well as the ability to connect topics together.

2. Provide experience in and appreciation for multiple perspectives;

Networked ubiquitous technologies enhance the discussion possibilities. Student to student and student to teacher discussions can be done together or in an anonymous manner. Conversations can be performed with experts, other schools, or community members via the web.

3. Embed learning in realistic and relevant contexts;

Schools/classrooms need not to operate as silent capsules of learning. Students need to be able to complete their work in an environment that they operate in outside of school.

4. Encourage ownership and voice in the learning process;

Educators serve as consultants with their students, guiding them in goal setting as well as driving the direction of the classroom.

5. Embed learning in social experience;

As mentioned in goal 2 above, there is an increased communication between both students and between students and teachers. That social interaction helps to solidify intellectual development.

6. Encourage the use of multiple modes of representation;

Ubiquitous technologies increase the modes of representation. Inclusion of video, graphical capabilities, digital images and audio provide more involved learning situations.

7. Encourage self-awareness in the knowledge construction process;

Knowing not just the information, but how we know. Ubiquitous technology allows greater freedom in the learning process and reflection of that learning process.

The following characteristics of meaningful learning provide guidelines for designing constructivist learning environments. (Jonassen)[6]

Active: Learners are engaged with their learning

Constructive: The basis of the constructivist learning theory, students are applying new learning to their base of prior knowledge.

Collaborative: Working with others to develop their knowledge.

Conversational: Open lines of communication with many individuals and groups.

Reflective: An articulation of what they learned, and how they are learning.

Contextualized: Applying learning to real world situations and problems.

Complex: Making material relevant by showing/learning it’s complexity and resisting the urge to “water down” material for the sake of consumption.

Intentional: Working towards a goal as opposed to simply learning “because”.

Opportunities with Learners & Personnel

Ubiquitous technology has become associated with a new wave in computing where the system serves the users’ needs, without requiring the individual to conform to it (Bull & Ferster, 2005) (Plymale, 2005). For learners and personnel in education, this involves significant changes in the overall educational experience and pedagogy.

Access to Information

A free and continuous flow of information among users is often hailed as the prominent feature of ubiquitous technology. When using mobile phones, handheld devices, laptops, or another required piece of equipment, five types of interactions become possible on a regular basis:

• learner-content
• learner-teacher
• learner-leaner
• learner-interface
• learner-community (Leh, Kouba, & Davis, 2005).

The combination of these interactions provides a student with numerous channels of input and output, thereby increasing the efficiency of learning. Learners can access databases, contact other students, send messages to teachers, work within the interface of their system, or possibly connect to community-wide discussion areas to find information. Students will become more inclined and able to search for the answer themselves or ask another peer for assistance as they become more accustomed to the new setup. As a side benefit, this development reduces the number of questions directed to the teacher, thereby freeing up time for more productive activities (Burns & Polman, 2006) (Windschitl & Sahl, 2002). Even after the flash and glamour of a new system wears off, access to new information remains the dominant aspect the students consistently capitalize on (Johnson, 2006). Learners in a ubiquitous environment of technology have constantly found the new range of resources significantly valuable to their education (Price, Malani, & Simon, 2007) (Wei & Chen, 2006). Personal computer users have become accustomed to using search engines such as Google or websites such as Merriam Webster to instantly find answers to questions. An environment incorporating ubiquitous technology allows students to always be connected to some type of knowledge database for finding information.

However, caution must be exercised with the increase in channels of information to the student so that quality is not compromised for quantity. With less focus on the teacher, a student may turn to unreliable sources that provide bogus or inaccurate information. Learners need to be trained to differentiate between reliable and debatable sources, including help from their peers.

Collaboration & Mobility

Beyond the flow of electronic information, ubiquitous technology creates a network of human users that facilitates collaboration (van 't Hooft, Diaz, & Swan, 2004). In a traditional classroom setting, students are limited by geographic location and time. A group project would require members to meet face to face or at least call one another, and both methods would require participants to focus on the task synchronously. A phone call could connect learners in two distinct locations, but time-zones and expensive international calling rates provide further barriers.

These limitations become nonexistent with the availability of devices such as handheld computers combined with access to a powerful international network. A student can post a message to another community member on the other side of the world whenever and wherever he or she wants to. The other person can then reply at his or her own leisure in an asynchronous manner. By making the system ubiquitous, these interactions can transpire twenty-four hours a day and in any setting (Wei & Chen, 2006). This mobility can additionally make the collaboration more pertinent to the learning experience by having users make their contribution in the most opportune moment. For example, medical students researching a disease can add information to and read items from a discussion while talking to target patients. Postponing the interaction can lessen relevance of the discussion and also cause important details to be omitted, so that real-time access is an important asset. Critics of this style of collaboration emphasize the social aspect of humans being neglected by the lack of personal connections (Leh, Kouba, & Davis, 2005). See #Reduced Social Interactions for an in-depth discussion of this standpoint.

Increase in Student Engagement

One of the most promising aspects of ubiquitous technology in education is the potential for student engagement to increase dramatically (Leh, Kouba, & Davis, 2005) (Wei & Chen, 2006) (Zucker, 2004) (van 't Hooft, Diaz, & Swan, 2004). The novelty of a new, connected learning environment with modern equipment will obviously excite any learner, but evidence suggests that motivation continues even after the initial enthusiasm. Installations of ubiquitous networks based on handheld devices and cell phones have resulted in significant increases of student participation in forums and discussions (Wei & Chen, 2006) (Zucker, 2004). These types of technology rich environments are also more motivating for disadvantaged or “troubled” students, and can positively affect attitudes toward educational activities. More participation in class activities directly relates to increased learning.

Even when ubiquitous technology has been implemented into synchronous classroom settings, student engagement has improved and evolved. Teachers that have been part of “one laptop per child” initiatives have observed that their mentality towards discipline shifted from worrying about if students were quiet - to if they were engaged (Windschitl & Sahl, 2002). Their classrooms become more active with a “hum” of discussions among students, instead of the stereotypical teacher-centered atmosphere. As a side effect, teachers have also informally observed that the social labeling of students based on academic achievement fades in a classroom with ubiquitous technology. A seventh-grade teacher noted that: “[Students] began to think about each other in more inclusive ways: They know who is the expert at doing different things, so they seek each other out for expertise. I think it changes sometimes who the resource people are” (2002). All of these factors can help to make the learning activities reach more students through better engagement.

Individualized Instruction

A running theme in ubiquitous technology is a shift the user as the focal point, and a parallel swing is seen in its educational application by student-centered instruction coming to the forefront (Windschitl & Sahl, 2002) (Huwe, 2007) (van 't Hooft, Diaz, & Swan, 2004). The learner becomes the central focus and the environment adjusts to her/his needs and interests. As mentioned in the previous section of #Access to Information, ubiquitous technology puts numerous channels of information in the hands of the student and promotes learner autonomy (McFarlane, 2005). He/she can tap into the resource of choice and experience an accelerated research process independently. This gives students more opportunities for independent exploration or inquiry-based activities, and develops independent learning skills for life in general (Huwe, 2007) (van 't Hooft, Diaz, & Swan, 2004) (Zucker, 2004).

One example of a ubiquitous e-book interface at National Central University in Taiwan illustrates how individualized instruction can be delivered (Wei & Chen, 2006). Students read the text through handheld devices, cell-phones, or standard computers and annotate areas of difficulty, unknown words, etc using text or audio messages. These remarks were then automatically sent to a community wide system of discussion boards and mentors where another peer would be assigned to answer. Thus, the student is able to have every question or doubt individually answered by tapping into the knowledge base of the greater community.

In settings of completely ubiquitous technology, according to its use in computer science, environments that present fully customized content according to physical location, knowledge level, and preferences can be created (Hsu, Ke, & Yang, 2006). A pilot project in the Life Science Hall of the National Museum of Natural Science (NMNS) in Taiwan demonstrated a framework where museum visitors received fully customized content through handheld devices. Prior to their visit, the users could enter information about the type of content they were searching for, their prior knowledge levels, and their time allotments. Once inside the museum, the handheld device could guide them through using maps, learning content, and messages based on their physical locations, which were being tracked. The flexible framework also allowed the user to enjoy the spontaneity of visiting other exhibits that caught their interest. Learners could rate exhibits and information along the way to constantly improve the level of customization. Upon leaving the museum, the learners could access additional resources about the information they experienced by logging into a website that gave them recommendations based on their behavior in the museum. In the end, the ubiquitous technology was able to deliver a completely learner-centered experience to the participant.

Continuing Education

The internet provides a large range of resources for continuing education after graduation from the K-12 or higher education setting, and ubiquitous technology provides a platform for continual access. The digitalization of video, audio, and print resources has made storage of information free of physical space limitations and has enabled databases of books and multimedia to exist on the internet. Many educational institutions have started the process of archiving lectures, handouts, and course resources for students’ retrieval during and after course sessions (Price, Malani, & Simon, 2007). Archiving of student work and the creation of digital portfolios enables learners and their teachers to track progress across levels and into their careers.

Beyond the basic review of information, other initiatives such as the Open Courseware Consortium provide individuals with access to course materials from top universities around the world. Some hospitals and workplaces have created internet based dialogues and assignments to keep their staff aware of developments in the field and increase discussion of new issues. These often employ handheld devices or laptops to aid communication among members. In internships and practice based learning experiences, ubiquitous technology enables on-site tracking and exchange of information between the learner and the mentor (Wei & Chen, 2006).

In the modern age of communication, integrating the new possibilities of ubiquitous technology into education give a new freedom to continued education. Students and parents juggle busy schedules of work, extra-curricular activities, and other responsibilities on a daily basis. The mobility of ubiquitous technologies and their ability to allow learners to access information and exercises "on the go" serve the needs of today's learners. It also enables adults that never have time in their schedule for taking formal, sit-down classes for professional development to capitalize on a new, flexible style of education that can be adjusted to their schedules. An individual with a laptop or handheld device and a mobile broadband card can virtually access online courses and collaborate with other students anywhere.

Conclusion

Ubiquitous technologies are designed around the user and to become one with the environment. Their integration into educational applications has tremendous potential for shifting standard pedagogy to an authentic learner-centered approach. This includes flexible access to information and mobility to free students from the confines of school buildings and libraries. It will result in an increase in student engagement and collaboration by the more learner-friendly infrastructure, and enhanced individualized instruction will customize the learning experience.

Schools need to start devoting a portion of their budget to technology so that ubiquitous technology can become a reality in the future. Ignoring technology and then attempting to make a one-time investment is not a realistic approach. Staff members and students need substantial training and time to adjust and develop effective applications of technology to education. With experience and equipment, the learning environment of the stereotypical class can be transformed for the better. Still, one cannot forget that there are serious challenges and concerns with such a major change.

Ubiquitous Technology in Education: Challenges

Although there are many positive characteristics of ubiquitous technologies in education, one must also consider the challenges and possible trade-offs which result from this rapidly growing aspect of modern society.

Lack of Experience, Research, & Pedagogy

The complete novelty of ubiquitous technology poses the greatest challenge to people attempting to apply it in educational settings. Whether it’s one-to-one computing or more advanced systems, teachers, administrators, students, and parents do not have a history of experience to draw from. “Conceiving of the intersection among the technology, the curriculum, and classrooms management” becomes a serious challenge because they simply do not know what a classroom with ubiquitous technology looks like (Windschitl & Sahl, 2002). In the past, technology has often been seen as an extra-curricular or elective subject. Students might take a few required typing or computing essentials courses, but the general curriculum across education is not designed with an environment of ubiquitous technology in mind. Implementing it in a style that aligns with the current learning goals requires many original decisions (Zucker, 2004). Should it become a central focus in the class? Should technology only be seen as a tool for teaching, and not change the curriculum? Should it be a software- or hardware- based approach? These questions are troublesome for leaders in education without previous experience on which to base decisions.

This lack of experience relates to a deficiency in pedagogical knowledge as well. Teachers in settings with adequate funding are finding themselves in classrooms full of laptops or other technologies and limited understanding about how to effectively use them for learning (Windschitl & Sahl, 2002). This is compounded by the fact that there are few resources teachers can turn to for sound advice. The general body of knowledge about how to possibly apply ubiquitous technology in education is narrow and often based on digitalizing old techniques (van 't Hooft, Diaz, & Swan, 2004). Training about how the equipment works is often done with staff members at the start of ubiquitous technology initiatives, but even instructors that are well versed in using technology deal with the discrepancy between knowing about technology versus knowing how to apply it. Communities and technology may create dynamic learning environments, but they cannot make learning happen (Leh, Kouba, & Davis, 2005) (Windschitl & Sahl, 2002) (van 't Hooft, Diaz, & Swan, 2004).

Sound pedagogy has been shown to significantly affect how well students learn with new setups of ubiquitous technology. In a study at the University of California, investigators evaluated the student experience of a new system called Ubiquitous Presenter. The system incorporated electronic Smartboards and the internet to provide professors and students with simplified access and editing of course material. For both courses studied, “students respond[ed] more positively to questions about specific pedagogical impacts (such as drawing a diagram) than to general questions on the impact of the system on attention and understanding” (Price, Malani, & Simon, 2007). Without proper teaching techniques, the value of these new technologies is compromised.

Further studies in the area of teachers and ubiquitous technology are clearly needed (Burns & Polman 2006). Longer-term studies of schools with one-to-one laptop environments or other systems of ubiquitous technology are needed to see how learners and instructors adjust once the learning curve is overcome. Places of education are still determining the role of ubiquitous technology and how to use it. As a result, the field lacks clear conclusions about the best approaches, negative side-effects, and if ubiquitous technology even produces the results desired (Lytras, Naeve, & Pouloudi 2005)(Bull & Ferster 2005).

Social Challenges

Exploitation

In the classrooms of today, teachers continuously attempt to expose students to new technologies, and there are more ubiquitous technologies every day. Unfortunately, with the exposure to new technologies other problems materialize. The work "Beyond the Digital Divide" states, "It is precisely those new users to whom we are trying to provide greater access who are at the greatest risk of being abused or exploited by online content (Burbules, Callister & Taaffe). By granting access to these technologies, students are exposed to a number of issues. Exploitation can occur with internet scams such as pyramid schemes sent to the unsuspecting in e-mails, (Burbules et al.) or sexual predators whom students may meet on IM or chat rooms. In Stewart Crais' article "Internet Safety at School and at Home," he states, "Internet stalkers look for that child, the one who trusts online relationships more than school or family relationships which may start out in a chat room (Crais, 2005) [7]. So by providing these opportunities for our students, we could be potentially exposing them to dangerous situations. "Online stalkers are seasoned at grooming their contacts, and at ferreting out the smallest pieces of information that might help them lure a child to talk with -- and eventually meet up with -- them" (Crais, 2005).

This doesn't mean that teachers need to stop the use of internet today in the classroom. There have been many different strategies devised to help combat this potential exploitation. For example, some schools have parent advisory sessions (Crais, 2005) where parents learn ways to protect their children from the aforementioned situations. Another option is to be very deliberate in educating students to the potential exploitation schemes and online predators. By supervision and education, many of these exploitable situations can be avoided.

Reduced Social Interactions

Another potential disadvantage of ubiquitous technology is the loss of face-to-face meeting. Ubiquitous technology has made it possible to interact with colleagues, friends, classmates, and strangers in distant environments, causing the trade-off of a reduction in social interactions where both parties are physically present. A person can spend days in a virtual environment such as Second Life, a virtual world built and owned by its residents which allows users to interact with others through chat. Although this does bring groups closer together and allow for more global relationships, there is a lack of related information that would be observable in a face-to-face encounter. Ubiquitous technology also has the ability to get in the way of collaboration by isolating the user from meaningful social interactions (Dieterle, Dede & Schrier, 2006)[8]. Through interaction with technology which creates an individualistic atmosphere, it is much simpler to ignore collaborative partners. A case study done at Oklahoma Christian University also shows that students preferred the face-to-face meetings compared to the online, and usually got more accomplished in the physical meetings (Dvorak & Buchanan, 2002) [9].

Not only can interactions be reduced physically, but also by quality. "Context is critical to interpreting social behaviors, context that is stripped away by digital mediation," says Jonathan Grudin in his work, "Group Dynamics and Ubiquitous Computing" (2002). Without the benefit of in-person meetings, many social cues are lost in cyberspace, which often causes poor interpretations of information, creating misunderstandings.

In order to avoid the pitfall of a loss in “people skills”, a balance must exist between face-to-face and virtual interactions. Both means of communication are important in society today- essential are the ability to read body language, and the ability to interact online, as more and more companies are doing much of their work across long distances. Neither medium is better, they are just different and both require practice, which can be done through situational practice in the schools.

Distractions

Access to an overwhelming amount of technology at one's fingertips has quickly morphed into a problem in the field of education. Ubiquitous technologies on one hand provide numerous fountains of information for students, but on the other can result in distractions for students. Having access to so much technology can lead to a lack of self-control and focus on the task-at-hand by students. Howard Levin cites excessive e-mail use, gaming, and Internet surfing as three large problems in using Internet technology in the classroom today (2005). Besides computer misuse, there is also an epidemic of cellphone text messaging in class that can be used for purely social purposes or even cheating. One of the most frustrating things for a teacher is to prepare a lesson for students and then attempt to compete with e-mail, texting with friends, and online shopping in order to get the main point across. It has already become necessary to implement policies regarding mobile phone and computer use in the schools. In addition to these policies, schools will have to invest in new technologies to monitor computer use in the classroom.

For example, the introduction of ubiquitous technology into a classroom setting will require new class management techniques by the teacher and, and new standards on a school-wide level. Products such as LanSchool and Dyknow Monitor assist teachers by giving them the ability to lock students’ laptops and see thumbnails of students’ screens. Some schools with one-to-one laptop initiatives have instigated random checks of students’ laptops for games and inappropriate content. Teachers without these types of infrastructures have often resorted to making students sit with their backs to the teacher to enable easy monitoring of student activity. Although effective for one purpose, this creates an awkward learning environment, and new techniques and affordable technologies are needed to maintain control of large groups of students in environments with ubiquitous technology (Pflaum, 2004).

Other Challenges

Financial

Obviously when more money is directed to one area, other areas suffer. As ubiquitous technology is becoming more widely used in the educational system and more money is being spent to finance these new technologies, sacrifices have to be made in other sections. "It is not possible to fund every technology initiative that is proposed" says a study done by Educause in 2003. Then how does one decide what gets funding and what does not? There are many different ideas to help cut costs in other areas in order to devote more money to technologies. Many universities are leaning towards the use of online textbooks to help save costs for their students, often cutting textbook prices in half. These WebBooks are also starting to appear in high schools across the nation as a low cost alternative to expensive books. Students are able to print specific pages and mark them up which many couldn't do with a standard school-issued text.

The trade-off in this situation is accessibility. Whereas most students are able to bring a textbook home from school, many do not have access to a computer to do the assigned reading and research. Unless students are given ample time in class to complete assignments, (which brings up a whole different set of problems) it is difficult to hold students accountable for online reading if there is a lack of access.

Reliability

Relying on technologies in the classroom can be a refreshing approach to teaching where students are doing their own exploratory learning, but the challenge can be issues with the technology. Burbules, Callister and Taaffe state, "The greater one's online presence and usage, the greater one's online exposure and risk." A case study conducted by Abigail Garthwait and Herman G. Weller which focused on two 7th grade teachers quest to integrate ubiquitous technology in their classes showed that many times, the teacher spent more time helping students with technological problems than planning for lessons (2005) [10]. It was also found that when teachers encountered technological problems, often they decided to discontinue use of the laptops they were using instead of fixing the problem and continuing on.

Are hassles with the technology worth the time and effort spent attempting to trouble-shoot and fix them? Often times the problems stem from the inadequate training of teachers in the use of ubiquitous technologies. What are seen as problems with the technology are no more than a small operator error which could be easily remedied with proper instruction. But sometimes they are not teacher errors and are actual technical glitches, connectivity problems or even acquired viruses which cause the technology to work in an irregular fashion. With the increase in use of technology, teachers must be trained to deal with problems, or there must be an expert on staff to maintain fluidity and keep instructional time at its maximum. Unfortunately, this requires more funding to implement. Teachers will have to be trained more extensively, or experts hired.

Conclusion

There is a significant learning curve that all users of ubiquitous technology must overcome. Even when common items such as cell phones and laptops become the tools, educators and students need time to adjust and develop new strategies of applying the technology in a novel, educational manner. In addition to adjustment, funding is also a challenge if the new technologies are going to appear in the classroom. The field of ubiquitous technologies in education is relatively young and still lacks the significant research, resources, and pedagogy required for people to use it effectively in mainstream education. Schools are not ready for a complete shift to ubiquitous technology yet. The future, however, is another matter.

The School of the Future?

The School of the Immediate Future

What is Coming?

What is happening now that will lead to further ubiquity in the near future? Schools of today are still moving towards a larger ratio of computers to students. Things you may be seeing in the immediate future include the increased use of laptop and tablet computers, Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs) or handheld computers, Smart technology (digital white boards and projectors), and other mobile media devices. We will be seeing more utilization of "non" educational devices like MP3 players to listen to Podcasts and books, and cell phones for mobile communication and digital media. [11]

The transition from multiple students per computer to one-to-one computing and eventually to one student surrounded by multiple computers will take some time. As this transition continues you will see a change in classroom structure and changes in computer technology size. Rooms will no longer need overhead projectors, DVD players, white boards / black boards, or even books. Technology will continue to shrink in size and grow in data capacity.

There will be an increased online presence from schools as they contact and share courses with schools from around the globe. Once again, teachers will be modifying existing web based programs to enhance their teaching. Sites that use social networking, blogging, and wiki's will gain popularity at schools as teachers learn and develop new uses for their design.

Depending on the level of public resistance, RFID ID tags may become the new standard for tracking student and staff's attendance and location. Some schools in the USA, Japan, Denmark, and abroad have implemented systems from companies such as InCom Corporation that give each individual a badge to wear around his/her neck. As the people pass through doorways and sensors in the school, their location is monitored and attendance for classes can be automatically taken. The technology in the field of RFID is still rapidly progressing, and with definite investments from Delta Airlines, Walmart, Microsoft, and other major companies, we can expect it to become integrated with more applications. MIT's Project Oxygen already has a working model that synchronizes with a hand-held device and expedites common office behaviors.

Possible Scenario

Imagine a student named Julia stepping onto the school bus, and her name appears on a small LCD by the driver, showing that her presence has been noted. As she sits down, the screen on her hand-held computer lights up and shows her the class schedule for the day with a room change for science (they will in the labs), a reminder from her math teacher that Julia has an appointment after school to makeup the last test, and a list of all assignments due. She gets off at school and as she enters the front door her presence is silently noted again. Suddenly, she remembers that she needed to borrow a book from her friend Maria, so she sends an instant message (IM) to her from the hand-held. Maria responds after a few seconds, and the two meet up by the gym to exchange books and a quick hello. A silent vibration from their handhelds reminds them that they have one minute before first period, so they scamper off to class.

As Julia sits down in English class, the teacher instantly sends a short poem to the handhelds of all the students to read silently. While reading, the students are instructed to circle any difficult words and underline at least one simile. After about ten minutes, the teacher pulls up the poem on digital board and it shows all the student's responses anonymously, but in different colors. He goes over the words with the most circles and tries to redirect the few lost minds that underlined examples of personification instead of similes. From there they move the desks into a circle and discuss possible interpretations of the poem. Eventually the bell rings and student move onto their next class. You can easily imagine different applications in each subject area and other school related activities (digital hall passes, instant grade access, etc) as Julia's day goes on.

The School of the Distant Future

So what role will ubiquitous technology play in the schools of the distant future? Some see learning capsules in the home where students can be tutored by the top experts in their respective fields, perform virtual experiments, and have conversations with holograms of history. The school building will become obsolete, and parents will advocate for these learning capsules for not only the benefit of individualized instruction, but also for the ability to control the learning environment and protect their children from the growing epidemic of school violence (Stevenson, 2006) [12]. Imagine having a sit down lunch with a holographic image of Neil Armstrong to discuss the history of the Space Program, or Martin Luther King Jr. to talk about the Civil Rights Movement.

Instead of going outside for a game of baseball in a physical education class, students virtually climb Mount Kilimanjaro, swim the English Channel, or run with the bulls in Pamplona to get their exercise. World language classes are obsolete with a new form of ubiquitous technology in a chip that is implanted into one’s ear. It of course translates speech into the user’s primary language simultaneously as a conversation happens making it unnecessary to comprehend more than one's native tongue. Research will be done through voice activated wall computers located throughout the house which only need to be asked a question to pull up the information and analyze the parts important to the project. Socialization will occur through virtual environments in which relationships will be formed with students all over the world.

Some of these scenarios may be in the distant future, and others may be closer to implementation, but with the daily advances in ubiquitous technology the distant future is probably not as far away as we think. Whether they are science fiction or future fact, technologies will influence the pedagogy of education, as they need to with the increasing integration of technology in the every day lives of students.

Conclusion

The scenario of the immediate future sounds like a nightmare to some and an amazing revolution to others. Should funding be put towards handhelds and digital boards when paper and a blackboard can somewhat accomplish the same task? Does a school have the right to know the exact, physical location of students at anytime during the school day? Is something used to track inventory for Walmart stores also appropriate for millions of students, or is it an invasion of privacy? Funding and privacy rights are the two issues at the core of making this revolution a possibly reality.

Schools and governments need to start making financial commitments to new technologies. Computers are standard equipment in many workplaces and students need exposure to them early on. It will take time and significant staff training, but with the rapid advancements in technology, schools need to get on board as soon as possible. Grants and other innovative sources of funding are available for institutions with tighter budgets, but governments must assist education with investments in technology. Sacrificing extracurricular activities or course outside the mainstream curriculum is not the answer; these provide outlets of enrichment that greatly enhance the student experience. Technology needs to be seen as an additional section of the budget, not replacement for something else. Many schools struggle with funding already, and without help the digital divide in education will continue to worsen.

The schools that have implemented RFID systems correctly realize their responsibilities to students and parents and that the benefits outweigh the risks. During the school day, the school or institution is completely responsible for the safety of its students. Intercom announcements, endless paper forms, and significant labor are spent everyday to track down students and monitor their location and attendance. It's a far from perfect system and allows for students to easily leave school grounds or forge fake passes as well. It also takes time away from instruction when a teacher has to take attendance or find a student. With a digitalized RFID system, a school can instantly know where students are at all times and streamline any activity related to attendance. It is not an invasion of privacy, but simply an improved system of what was being done before. However, schools should not have the ability to track students outside of school property. Once a student leaves school grounds or steps off the bus, the RFID tracking should stop immediately. Government laws are needed to still protect the privacy of a student off school property, and control the use of RFID in educational settings.

Unintended Complexities in Ubiquitous Techonology

Privacy

Along with the luxury of constantly being “in touch”, there is a concern with endangering an individual’s privacy. Privacy is defined as “the claim of individuals, groups or institutions, to determine when, how, and to what extent information about them is communicated to others" (Winters). Mobile phones can be used to invade a person’s privacy in many ways. Commonly, a standard cell phone is equipped with a camera, a camcorder, or both. A person can walk down the street, see a couple fighting, and then go home and post the video on YouTube. Every person with a camera phone is a potential paparazzo. Another example is T-moble’s “Sidekick”. This device allows many people to engage in synchronous chat with and send pictures to anyone around the world. Since the inception of the Sidekick 2, which is equipped with a camera, many people have had messages intercepted and pictures viewed by outside sources.

Safety & Security

As mentioned earlier, saftey is a concern for many people. Ubiquitous technology is often looked upon as an answer to lower crime rates. In considering technology’s effect and safety and security, the movie Minority Report, directed by Steven Spielberg, may come to mind. The film is set in 2054 Washington D.C. where crimes are detected even before they are committed thanks to the help of “pre-cogs”, psychics, employed by the Department of Pre-Crime. The Department of Pre-Crime relies on the pre-cogs for evidence to make arrests. The pre-cogs can transfer certain information, such as the time and date of the crime, the criminal’s name, and any images from the pre-cogs’ minds to the computer, which aids the Department of Pre-Crime to locate and analyze the clues about the case. Minority Report also addresses questions about technology that makes us uneasy: How reliable are computers? Can technology help us in decreasing or eliminating crime?

The security of adopted technology is a concern not just limited to movies. With so much information being transmitted so rapidly and readily, it is easy to see why the corporate world is concerned about data theft. Equally disconcerting, especially in this day and age of identity theft, are the dangers for personal users, with much of their private information being available on digital technology. One of the concerns for GPS technology, for example, is that “users must trust their service provider is protecting their location information, and not selling it or using it in other inappropriate ways (Borriello, Chalmers, LaMarca, & Nixon, 2005, p. 38). The ability to locate someone against their will brings to mind the dangers of the Nike + chips installed in some of their shoes. While a useful tool when used in conjunction with an iPod to record miles and calories burned, the signal it emits also allows for rather easy tracking of the shoe wearer, or anyone that has the chip planted on them (Newitz, 2006). With other services such as mobile banking available on many digital devices, protected use requires complex security protocols (Steele & Tao, 2007, p. 158). However, as technology improves, so does the ability of software providers to maintain firewall security over wireless networks (Edwards, 2005, p. 88). Google Earth has become one more of the many programs that are under continuous scrutiny. By allowing any person with a computer and internet access, it is possible to locate and receive a visual feed of that destination. In India, President APJ Abdul Kalam expressed concern that terrorists could use Google Earth to plan assaults on the Indian Parliament, the President's house and government offices in New Delhi, all of which show up clearly in Google Earth's photos (Prying, 2005, 1). As tension and conflict continues to build throughout the world, Google Earth will be closely watched and consistently regulated to ensure user and non-user safety.

Cost

The costs of “smart home” products are often prohibitive. Many would probably enjoy the convenience and novelty of a voice-activated or remote-controlled, fully automated home, but few can afford the money and time to install it all.

As manufacturing processes improve and become more standardized, however, many large technology providers, such as Cingular, are able to offer equipment and services for a fraction of what they used to (Edwards, 2005, p. 87). Features such as GPS chips become more standard as well, and help to lower cost (Borriello et al., 2005, p. 38). Lower prices mean that more home consumers will be willing to buy the product, but it also helps to spread cutting-edge technology in the corporate realm as well. Many companies tend to be “risk averse,” and, in order to prevent financial loss, tend to be conservative (Snyder, 2004, p. 26). As prices drop, though, companies become more willing to buy newer, more network capable devices for their employees.

Boundaries

Boundaries also create problems for ubiquitous technology. Al-Muhtadi states, “Ubiquitous computing extends its reach beyond the computational infrastructure and attempts to encompass the surrounding physical spaces as well. Ubiquitous computing applications often exploit physical location and other context information about users and resources to enhance the user experience” (Al-Muhtadi, 2005, pg.7). At times, when using ubiquitous technology, there are situations where boundaries affect interoperability. Interoperability is the ability for any device or software to explicitly understand every other software or device it encounters. This is an example of how boundaries affect interoperability: Homeowners wake up in the morning and go downstairs for coffee and to watch Cartalk on WTRN. To their surprise no sounds come out of the speakers. The reason is because the neighbors have just bought a new Bluetooth-enabled speaker which, when first installed, associated themselves to the nearest sound. The neighbors then are awakened by the sounds of car repair (Edwards & Grinter, 2001). So from this example, you can see that the boundaries of the Bluetooth-enabled speakers came into contact with the nearest sound, which was the neighbors early morning television show. This is one many problems that boundaries create for ubiquitous technology.

Reliability

Overall, ubiquitous technology presents some issues with reliability. As stated before, ubiquitous computing can have problems with privacy, interoperability, and boundaries. It would be foolish to assume that this new technology will not have any problems. So it is up to manufacturers to upgrade and test this technology to address these issues.

Invisibility and Ease of Use

Two other concerns related to ubiquitous technology are invisibility and ease of use. A key component of any system of ubiquitous technology is its ability to become invisible. There is a desire for “smart home” developers, for example, to make their devices a “part of the ecology within a household” (Taylor et al., 2005, p. 384). The ultimate goal of user-friendly devices is that they become so easy and natural to use that they operate unnoticed. The novelty of new technology is often short-lived, and companies recognize that the only way to maintain a market is to create products that become second nature to their consumers. Ease of use is also a factor with security. Although complex protocols and codes are required to maintain a secure network, it is still the task of the creators to make the end user experience simple and easy to use (Steele & Tao, 2006, p. 158).

Conclusion

As technology continues to evolve, it is important to address its influence in our lives today. Consumers are increasingly enamored with the capabilities, ease of use and portability of new innovations. According to two different sources, it was reported that in both Africa and Canada, approximately two-thirds of the population have mobile telephones. An article in the San Francisco Chronicle stated that if present trends continue, “it's likely that U.S. households could be 30 to 50 percent wireless only in several years, mirroring present patterns in Europe” (Kim). It seems as though we become that much more connected with each other without really having to make a connection with each other outside of using a cable, or a modem, or a wireless network.

Overall Conclusion

Ostensibly, ubiquitous computing has the power to change society as we know it, and allow unprecedented access to information to all groups of people. Accessibility has been a major focus of worldwide movements related to Information and Communication Technologies (ICT). But what about those members of societies who do not wish to participate in ubiquitous technology? Or who cannot physically participate? Or people who live in such remote or devastated geographical regions such that the complicated infrastructure required to have ubiquitous technology is simply impossible to implement? And if they get the technologies, will it solve their problems?

Is it really possible for computer technology to become as ubiquitous as writing or television? Is this movement going to deepen the digital divide in places like the United States? (let alone third world countries) Even if access is universal, who is going to teach people how to use the technology? Will it be intuitive for people with no previous access? What happens when underdeveloped nations fall further behind when they are unable to support the underlying structures necessitated by this advanced technology? The idea of globalization through technological innovation will only apply to the nations and citizens in them who are willing and able to utilize these new technologies. Is the creation and perpetuation of ubiquitous technology for the sake of itself really the best use of resources?

"Why are we getting excited about developing technology that allows us to check e-mail in the car when we have yet to figure out how to distribute food and resources in a way that helps 1.5 billion people living in poverty? I'd like to see Newsweek and others put more weight behind using technology to help solve the existing global problems before we start creating a new digital galaxy." Chris Hardie, Newsweek Reader (1999).

In the push for newer and greater technological innovations in our first-world society, it is easy to lose sight of the larger global picture. Before we even consider universal access to technology, we need to first address access to more basic human needs. Access to wholesome food. Access to clean drinking water. Access to treatment for widespread diseases that are killing countless people for lack of funds for simple treatments, such as tuberculosis, and malaria (CIA, 2007). Before we start funding research on a system that tracks the temperature preferences of individuals in malls, we need to spend some time on the more basic needs of humanity. If scientists were concentrating on microorganisms affecting drinking water instead of researching nanotechnology that tracks humans, we might be able to achieve more meaningful progress for society. For further information on the Digital Divide, see DigitalDivide-415

Additional Resources & Links

Keywords

Other terms that have been used are: ubiquitous learning, ubiquitous computing, ubiquitous technology, ubiquitous media, ubiquitous space, ubiquitous classroom, one-to-one computing, smart environments, smart spaces, pervasive computing, embodied virtuality (distinguishes dif between virtual reality), Affective Computing (Dator 2), ambient intelligence.  

Research Projects in Ubiquitous Technology

• MIT's Project Oxygen
• Georgia Tech's Aware Home
• Carnegie Melon University's Project Aura
• UCLA's Smart Kindergarten
• UCSD's ActiveCampus Project
• Stanford's Interactive Workspaces
• Microsoft's Center for Information Work (CIW)
• University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign (UIUC) HESTIA building services

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