Reinforcement theory
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Contents |
Definitions
Reinforcer: Any stimulus that, when contingent on a response, serves to increase the rate of responding
Reinforcement theory: The main idea that reinforcers can control behavior. The definition has two main components: Contingency, where the occurrence of the reinforcer depends on the occurrence of the learner's response, and Rate of Responding, where the reinforcer serves to increase the learner's rate of responding.
Related Psychological Terms: Skinner, B. F. , Reinforcement, Law of Effect, Punishment
History
B.F. Skinner developed the reinforcement theory while working with lab rats in devices he called 'Skinner boxes'. These boxes consisted of a metal cage with an electrified wire floor and a food pellet dispenser that delivers food into the food tray when a bar is pressed down. He found that the food pellets served as a reinforcer and increased the rat's rate of responding by pressing down the bar.
The types of reinforcers:
Positive reinforcer: Presenting a reward after a desired behavior (delivering food pellet after pressing bar) Positive reinforcement is observed when a behavior is followed by a consequence that INCREASES the behavior's likelihood of reoccurring.
Negative reinforcer: Taking away an aversive stimulus after a desired behavior (stopping an electrical shock after pressing bar) Negative Reinforcement involves steps designed to lead one to appropriate action in order to escape or avoid an unwanted consequence. In other words, the desired behavior INCREASES with the use of negative reinforcement.
Punishment: (1) Presenting an aversive stimulus contingent on a response (administering an elctrical shock) (2) Taking away a rewarding stimulus contingent on a response (removing the delivery of food pellets) An event is viewed as punishment only if it is followed by a consequence that DECREASES the behavior over time.
B.F. Skinner used this reinforcement theory to alter the already existing Law of Effect in order to downplay the role of punishment in changing behavior. Instead he was convinced that behavior could be altered by simply using positive and negative types of reinforcement.
It should be noted that negative reinforcement is not equated with punishment. When either positive or negative reinforcement is used, a desired behavior increases. When punishment is used, a behavior will decrease.
Schedules of Reinforcement
When the desired behavior is gained as a result of reinforcement, reinforcing again and again becomes too time-consuming. An abrupt stoppage of the reinforcement would cause the performance of the desired behavior to weaken. Therefore, a gradual thinning of reinforcement is necessary. Schedules of reinforcement are the rules for how a reinforcer is presented following a behavior. They can be defined in terms of time (interval) or number of responses (ratio).
Fixed interval
Reinforces behaviors at a specific time (ex. Every 5 minutes). One reinforcer would be delivered if at least one correct response was made during the time interval. The reinforced can become aware of the time length and, knowing he has to perform just once, will wait for the time limit to run out before beginning his next task.
Example: Rewarded at the end of every class period for good behavior
Fixed ratio
Reinforces behaviors after a specific number of responses (ex. Every 5th response). The key here is to seek the right amount of work given the reward schedule. Normally a ratio schedule produces consistent work.
Example: Rewarded for every homework assignment turned in
Variable interval
Reinforces behaviors at various time intervals randomly. The student's behavioral performance is is higher and steadier because he cannot determine the next time interval that will be used to make the reinforcement available.
Example: Rewarded at different times of the day for good behavior
Variable ratio
Reinforces behaviors after various numbers of responses randomly. It is done in such a manner that the reinforcer is not predictable, so the student maintains or even increases the pace of his output.
Example: Rewarded for some homework assignments turned in
Applications in Classroom Management
Skinner's theory, as well as other reinforcement techniques were later applied to classroom settings with the idea that using reinforcers could increase the frequency of productive behaviors and decrease the frequency of disruptive behaviors.
Contingency Contracting This contract between the student and teacher specifies what behaviors are appropriate and which are not by listing what types of rewards or punishments will be received.
Token economy In a token economy, students are given some type of token for appropriate behaviors, and those tokens can later be exchanged for prizes or privileges.
Incentive System Applying an incentive system should involve all students in the classroom. It would be designed to shape a misbeaving child's behavior. For example, this sytem could be set up to reward the whole class for total class compliance
Encouragement System The teacher could focus on one target behavior to work on with the erring student, at first ignoring his other misbehaviors. For instance, the teacher could give the offender a reward card. For every problem that student completes correctly, he would get a hole punched inhis card. After so many holes, the student would be rewarded some kind of prize, like candy. Make it sugar-free, please.
Evidence of success
Research has shown that using reinforcement to help manage classroom discipline has been successful, especially for managing behavior in children who have attention deficit disorder and other behavioral disorders. Creating an orderly and stable classroom environment has helped provide the essential foundation for improving classroom behaviors, study habits, and organizational skills. The key is to be consistent in applying the positive and negative consequences. When students are learning new behaviors such as positive social skills, a combination of the following strategies has demonstrated the most success:
Modeling - The story goes like this: Jim Carey was a rambunctious lad who had trouble keeping his mouth shut during class. His teacher decided to allow him two minutes at the beginning of each class to say what was on his mind, as long as he kept his speech school appropriate. This is an example of modeling. (It is said that Jim used this time to create and streamline his stand-up comedy routine.)
Rehearsing appropriate behavior - Given an example of how a student should act, and then having that student practice that behavior.
Role Playing - Allowing the misbehaving student to change roles, letting someone else play his part.
Continuous Reinforcement - needed at the onset of misbehaviors, but must be thinned at some point to allow the desired behavior to grow.
Prompting - this is a behavior analysis using signals toward the misbehaver to change the misbehavior. It is a stimulus that will most likely bring about a desired behavior.
Critics
There are many critics on the experimental analysis of behavior, many of whom disagree with the notion that animal experiments can be used as a basis to discuss human behaviors. Many people disregard operant conditioning as simply conditioned reflexes and habit formation in mazes. Referring to an experiment where reinforcement was used to teach pigeons to play a simple tune on a toy piano, Eric Ashby made the following criticism, “Children do behave like pigeons, and this is why this technique is so dangerous. Pigeons can be taught to play the piano but they cannot be taught to understand music. Rote Learning without understanding is useless.�?
Personal Testimonies
As a child of the parochial school system of the 1960s, I was taught that negative reinforcement was the same as punishment. Not only would a paddle decrease an undesired behavior, it tended to increase a desired one. As time progressed, the paddle seemed to turn into a symbol of status, at least for boys. A story is told of a man who placed a chain-link fence aroud his house to keep out would-be thieves. The fence was not high enough to keep out any ambitious robber, so the homeowner purchased a trained German Shepherd to guard the house. Pilfering ended immediately - no robber dared trespass for fear of the dog. The dog had not had to attack a single thief. What legal 'threat' do teachers have that would keep misbehaviors out of their classrooms? Max Uhls
References:
Keller, F.S. (1969). Learning: Reinforcement Theory. New York, NY: Random House Inc.
Mayer, Richard E. (2003). Learning and instruction. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merril Prentice Hall.
Skinner, B.F. (1969). Contingencies of Reinforcement: A Theoretical Analysis. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
(Image source: http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/behsys/operant.html) Wolfgang, Charles H. (2005). Solving discipline and classroom management problems: methods and models for today's teachers - 6th edition. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
