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==Descriptions, Definitions, Types of==  
DEFINITION

Reinforcement is a behavioral principle that characterizes a relationship between an observable behavior and a consequence (Wolfgang 30).

Reinforcement is the presentation of a reward or the removal of an aversive stimulus following a response. Reinforcement always increases the future probability of the reinforced response. (Corsini, 1984, p.554)

DIFFERENT TYPES OF REINFORCEMENTS

*[[Positive Reinforcement]]  When a behavior is followed by a consequence that increases a desired behavior. (i.e. reprimands, praise, token economies)
*[[negative reinforcement]]  When a behavior is chosen in order to escape or avoid an unwanted consequence to increase a desired behavior. 
*[[Punishment]]  When a behavior or event is followed by a unwanted consequence that increases a desired behavior (Wolfgang 30-32). 

TYPES OF REINFORCERS

There are also two different types of reinforcers, primary and secondary.  Primary reinforcers are the student’s natural, unlearned, or unconditioned reinforcers that engage one of the five senses (Wolfgang 33).  Secondary reinforcers are not inherent to the student’s survival and therefore are not natural.  There are several categories of secondary reinforcers; namely, tangible, privileges, activity, generalized, and social reinforcers (Wolfgang 33).

==Application in Classrooms==
In order to reach the target behaviors, one method of using reinforcements requires the number of reinforcements to be thinned out by using schedules.  There are four types of schedules.
* Fixed-Ratio Schedule - the number of times the student performs the target behavior will determine when he/she will receive the reinforcer.  
*Variable-Ratio Schedule - he target response is reinforced on an average of the number of correct responses.  Receiving of the reinforcer becomes unpredictable.
*Fixed-Interval Schedule - after the student successfully performs a required desired behavior, a specific amount of time must pass prior to receiving another reinforcer.
*Variable-Interval Schule - the intervals between reinforcers is unpredictable.

(Wolfgang 35)

==Evidence of Effectiveness==
STUDY
A study done at the University of Central Arkansas demonstated the use of reinforcement to encourage a desired behavior.  In this case, procedures were introduced to establish a token economy in an undergraduate psychology class in which the 63 students involved earned tokens for participation and then exchange the tokens for extra credit.  The effectiveness of the reinforcement was evaluated by recording the degree of participation before, during, and after the implementation of the token system.

RESULTS
*directed and redirected participation increased during the token economy
*directed and redirected participation returned to the baseline after the removal of the token economy
*students responded faster to questions during the token economy

(Boniecki and Moore 224)

==Critics and Their Rationale==
POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT
*Positive reinforcements are not always good for a student.  
*Negative reinforcements are not always bad for a student.  
The key is to determine what kind of behavior increases when these reinforces are applied (Wolfgang 30).  

PUNISHMENT

Punishment is widely used because it works for about 95% of students attending public schools.  Mild forms of punishment, such as the use of verbal reprimands, fines, or occasional removals from class typically control student behavior.  (Maag 117)

According to Wolfgang, negative reinforcements should be used sparingly while positive reinforcement should be emphazied.  He states that negative reinforcements and punishments are easier solutions and often get immediate results.  However, they are suited for short term use.  (Wolfgang 32)

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY REINFORCERS
*Primary reinforcers are very powerful because they are paramount to the student’s basic survival needs and previous experiences (Wolfgang 33). 
*The value of secondary reinforcers has to be acquired and the stimulus being used as the reinforcer has to be conditioned before being effective (Wolfgang 34).

==Alternative Explanations Due to '''Diversity''' Considerations==

==''Signed'' �?Life Experiences�?, Testimonies and Stories==
I can not imagine a class that goes by without using reinforcements as a tool in classroom management.  Being a middle school teacher, I have observed that negative reinforcements and punishments can work well for students if they are placed in the form of rules and consequences.  On the other hand, when positive reinforcements become part of the rules, they become less effective.  The power in positive reinforcement at this age level is in the perception of genuiness.  H. Ro

Sometimes effects can be combined. For instance, last week, several of my students decided that they wanted to disrupt class by making a handmotion similar to asking a truck driver to honk the horn. When a request to desist proved ineffective, I tried to act creatively. I asked the students who were performing the hand gesture to step into the hallway, and instructed them to continue the behavior until the end of the period without stopping, slowing down, or changing arms. This had the effect of punishment, because there was a small amount of physical pain involved. I also told the students that if they stopped before the end of the period (about 20 minutes) they would receive a 60 minute detention. (Negative Reinforcement). Students had the choice of accepting the consequence for the disruption, or continuing their behavior to extinction. Each student managed to get through the rest of the period without getting the detention, and even said at the end (as they massaged their tired arms0 that they would never try something like that again.    Warner Ferratier

This school year I instituted a rewards system in my high school math classes called Bonus Bucks.  Students can earn bonus bucks for participating in class, working collaboratively with their teams and encouraging each other.  They can use bonus bucks for locker/bathroom pass, extra credit or a late homework pass.  I have found that the number of students who participate has increased this year with the extra incentive.  I have also found that the positive reinforcement has created a more positive classroom environment.  Students know they will be rewarded for congratulating a classmate on solving a problem correctly.  At the beginning of the school year students were only answering questions for the rewards, but their behavior has changed and they are in the habit of participating in class.  One day I forgot to bring bonus bucks to class and surprisingly my students maintained the same level of participation that they had on previous days with the bonus buck rewards.  Rachel Fruin

==References and Other Related Links of Interest==
 Links:
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinforcement Reinforcement]
* [[Positive Reinforcement]]
* [[negative reinforcement]]
* [[punishment]]
Source

Boniecki, Kurt; Moore, Stacy (2003).  Breaking the Silence: Using a Token Economy to Reinforce Classroom Participation, ''Teaching of Psychology,'' 30(3), 224-227.

Corsini, R. (1984). "Current Psychotherapies." Itasca, IL: F. E. Peacock Publishers, Inc.

Maag, John W. (2001).  Rewarded by Punishment: Reflections on the Disuse of Positve Reingforcements in Schools, ''Exceptional Children,'' 67(2), 173-186.
 
Wolfgang, Charles H., ''Solving Discipline And Classroom Management Problems: Methods and Models for Today’s Teachers''; U.S.A, John Wiley and Sons, 2001.
[[Category: EPSY400 ClassroomLearning]]
[[Category: EPSY406 ClassroomManagement]]
[[Category: EPSY490 ClassroomLearningAndManagement(CTER)]]