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Monitored and developed by Natalie Lowe, student at the University of Illinois, through EPSY 400: Psychology of Learning in Education. Please feel free to add any additions you like! 

==Descriptions, definitions, synonyms, organizer terms, types of==

'''Prose'''

According to Webster's Online Dictionary, '''prose''' is defined as '''''"the ordinary language people use in speaking or writing."''''' 

Prose is anyting that is written like poetry, editorials, books, [[Children's books ]] etc.  Prose comes in two types '''narrative''' and '''expository''' [[expository text]]. 

'''Narrative'''

According to Webster's Online Dictionary, '''narrative''' is defined as '''''"something that is narrated : STORY."'''''

Examples of narratives can include stories such as: fairy tales, fables, short stories, fantasy,legend, mystery, science fiction, biographies and autobiographies to name a few. All stories have a beginning, a middle and an end. There are other parts of stories that children should learn to identify, such as: characters, settings, themes, a problem or [[conflict]], a sequence of events and a resolution(comprehension instruction). I am sure if you think of all the fairy tales you know you can identify each of these parts. The important thing about this is you can learn to predict what could happen as you learn the structure.

Narrative prose or storytelling involves both reading and writing, but it is often forgotten that neither of these are necessary for storytelling. Since ancient times, pictures and oral renditions of stories have been used to tell stories. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storytelling (Wikipedia Storytelling)]

Vitz (1990) claims that narratives are a function in a person’s moral development.  Vitz goes on to back this claim with the thoughts of several other psychologists.  Some moral issues than can be addressed through narrative include empathy, caring and commitment, and personal character.  Vitz (1990) feels moral education effects aspects in education and the society at large.

Bruner according to Vitz (1990), feels narrative thinking comes from actual and interrelated situations that show the validity of their moral thinking.  Narratives tell about, the actions, intentions, outcomes, and personal experiences of people.  Sarbin, a social psychologist, feels narratives explains the reasons behind human behavior (Vitz, 1990)  Sarbin, according to Vitz (1990), believes our moral choices are developed by our internal self-narratives.  Cole, according to Vitz (1990), think children understand their moral behavior through a narrative context and their moral behavior is deeply affected by narrative experience.

Vitz (1990) concludes narratives should be used to model the principles and general actions of moralities.
Vitz (1990) acknowledge there will always be different views on what morality, but tolerating other views may eventually allow psychology to reach the ultimate form of moral knowledge: wisdom.

==Application in classrooms and similar settings==
'''Classroom'''

When children first attend school their reading and writing skills may or may not be well developed.  That is why pictures and picture books are as important.  Using pictures alone can allow children to construct a story (Ruddel, 1999).  Picture books are important for children to make connections between what the picture displays and the print that conveys these ideas.  Pictures allow for a deeper understanding because they can convey emotion.

Children need to know the proper order to proceed such as, front and back, left to right, and top to bottom.  Big books are good to display these concepts.  Putting pictures into sequence allows children to understand order when coupled with words (Ruddel, 1999). Allowing children to experience new things (trip to zoo, farm) help to increase their descriptive words.  Another help is to put these words in a book that children can refer back to when writing.  Another process that leads from reading to writing is having groups of children listen to stories and discuss possible outcomes at various points in the book.  They can use this experience on their own or in groups together (Ruddel, 1999)

The organization of the classroom is important, you want the reading and writing centers close together to link the connection between the two.  It allows for easy access to book for ideas and should be comfortable to invite creative expression (Ruddel, 1999).

In the Learning and Instruction book by Mayer (2003), the concept by Read (1981) to separate grammar, punctuation and spelling from writing (p.127) is important.  In fact, from Mayer’s (2003) book, Hillock (1984) found emphasis on grammar has a detrimental effect on writing (p.139) Grammar can be a separate lesson that with practice will become automatic and have no effect on the quality of the written story. (Mayer, 2003)

'''Teacher Research'''

The research looks at things teachers missed or misunderstood what the students understand.  They use transcripts to "see" different viewpoints or experiences they might not have time to notice.  The teachers work together as allies and learn from each other’s experience (Michaels, 2004).

One thing learned concerning narrative prose was when a teacher had share time that was ruled by one student telling stories.  The child did not follow the rules about time, but the interests of the other children were extremely interested. The child incorporated other student to act out his characters.  While the teacher was trying to decide how to deal with this, she became aware of benefits for the other students instead of "life-event" stories they began to write fictional stories.  Share time stories became a storytelling time, and the teacher became aware of some of the constraints she put on "talk time".  The teacher knew that if certain types of expression weren’t on the list, she ignored them and everyone was losing out on possible enriching experience (Michaels, 2004 p.22-30).

==Evidence of effectiveness==

If students can identify "recurring story grammar elements," then they are in turn provided with a story schema. ([http://www.netxv.net/pm_attach/67/TRI-Comprehension_Instr.pdf Comprehension Instruction], 2002, 14)

Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary broadly defines '''schema''' as '''''"a structured framework or plan :  OUTLINE."'''''

When students are able to identify their text as a narrative, "students can then call on this story schema to make predictions about what might happen in the story, to visualize settings or characters, or summarize plot events." 

The following are "instructional practices" provided by the Texas Reading Initiative 2002 online revised edition of Comprehension Instruction, "that facilitate students' understanding of narrative text":
*  "focusing discussions on story elements and encouraging students to relate story events and characters to their own experiences;
*  encouraging students to compare the structure of one story to that of other stories they have read; and
*  preparing visual guides, such as story maps of the structure of a story, to help them recall specific story elements."

([http://www.netxv.net/pm_attach/67/TRI-Comprehension_Instr.pdf Comprehension Instruction], 2002, 14)

==Critics and their rationale==

Day (1991), while arguing with some of Vitz’s ideals, did not mention some psychologists who, in his opinion, have added important ideas regarding narrative and moral psychology.  His biggest objection is that Vitz does not take into account several aspects of applying moral psychology within a narrative approach. In fact, Day (1991) implies that moral attitude comes from those who teach it, and doesn’t take into account the students or their experiences, who are supposed to learn from the narrative (Day, 1991).

==Alternative explanations due to '''Diversity''' considerations==

==''Signed'' &ldquo;life experiences&rdquo;, testimonies, and stories==
'''Please acknowledge who you are.'''

I think it is important for children to identify text and writing as either being narrative or expository in style.  This can often be done through sorting nonfiction and fiction books.  Until last year, third graders in Illinois were tested on narrative writing skills for ISAT testing.  They were scored in the following areas:  Focus, Support, Organization, Integration, and Mechanics.  Again, the story written is sequential in nature; it has a clear beginning, middle, and end (often organized with the incorporation of transitions).  These personal stories remian a part of our curriculum.  The emphasis for strong reaction and feelings in a story is a prominent feature of narrative prose writing for kids.  For instance, rather than saying I was happy, show the feeling by stating, "I was jumping up and down with joy!" or "I was smiling from ear-to-ear".  This is just some insight to how third graders are instructed on creating their own personal, narrative prose.

-Heidi Savoca, 3rd Grade Teacher

As a parent, I have bought and read tons of books that are aimed at teaching some type of moral to children.  The Berenstein Bears series have books that cover every issue you can think of when raising children.  A lot of books address some type of moral complication, but it is the role of the parent or teacher to be sure the child understands.

-K. Darche

When I was a children’s librarian before becoming a teacher, I invited storytellers to entertain the children on a monthly basis. We had a packed house each time. Children loved hearing, seeing and feeling the stories as the unfolded in front of them. I have used storytelling in my classroom because I believe it reaches many children’s learning styles. Those interpersonal learners feel as if I am speaking with them, intrapersonal learners feel as if they are feeling their own story, visual learners see me telling the “get it" as the same way auditory learners can close their eyes and just listen.

==References and other links of interest==
'''References'''
*  Comprehension Instruction (2002 Online Revised Edition). Texas Reading Initiative.  Texas Education Agency.  [http://www.netxv.net/pm_attach/67/TRI-Comprehension_Instr.pdf http://www.netxv.net/pm_attach/67/TRI-Comprehension_Instr.pdf]. 13-14.
*  Day, J.M. (1991). Narrative, psychology and moral education. American Psychologist, 46(2), 167-168
*  Mayer, R. (2003). “Learning and instruction‿. Merrill Prentice Hall, New Jersey.
*  [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/narrative Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary: Definition of narrative]
*  [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/prose Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary: Definition of prose]
*  [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/schema Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary: Definition of schema]
*  Michaels, S. (2004) “Regarding children’s words.‿ Teachers College Press. New York.
*  Ruddell, R. B. (1999).  “ Teaching children to read and write becoming an influential teacher". Allyn and Bacon, Boston.
*  Vitz, P. (1990).  The use of stories in Moral development: New psychological reasons for an old education method. American Psychologist. 45(6), 709-720.

'''For further information, please visit:'''

*  http://www.cynthialeitichsmith.com/newreadingb.htm
*  http://www.birchlane.davis.ca.us/library/10quick.htm
*  http://www.colorado.edu/journals/standards/V6N2Pride/KIDS/intro.html
*  [[moral reasoning]]
*  [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storytelling wikipedia storytelling]
*  [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literature wikipedia literature]



[[Category: EPSY400 ClassroomLearning]]
[[Category: EPSY490 ClassroomLearningAndManagement(CTER)]]