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== Apprenticeship ==

This site is completely under construction for Dr. Anderson's Educational Psychology 400 class at the University of Illinois. I will attempt to make a complete entry, as informative as possible by the end of this semester, December 2004. However, I appreciate any additions you may feel may fit at anytime. 

'''Apprenticeship'''  

*Some ideas are better transferred through direct experience than by textbooks. 

'''Definitions:'''

1. one bound by indenture to serve another for a prescribed period with a view to learning an art or trade b : one who is learning by practical experience under skilled workers a trade, art, or calling

2. an inexperienced person : NOVICE <an apprentice in cooking> from Merriam-Wester Online.

3. A beginner; a learner

4. "...apprenticeship is a successful method of instructrion that emerged in societies around the world over the course of human history (2, p. 438)

'''Text definition:'''

"The goal of cognitve apprenticeship is to help students learn the cognitive 'processes that experts use to handle complex tasks' through guided experience on intellectual tasks" (2, p. 439).

'''History:'''

Apprenticeship is one of the most important institution that training has grown around (1). It began back between 100 B.C. and 300 A.D under the influence of the ancient Greeks and Romans who used it as a tool for transfering knowledges and skills, since most people, up until recently, received no formal education (1).

There are three stages of apprenticeship: apprentice, journeyman, and master. An apprentice would train under a master for a number of years, eventually advancing to journeyman, who would have possess the basic skills and knowledge of a particular craft (1). The journeyman could then begin working, and after a number of years, he could attain the status of master, and take on his own apprentices.  Apprentices eventually faded and died during the late 19th century as the need for mass produced and educated workers came about.

There have been many swings in the need and demand of apprenticeships for on-the-job training.  For example, "Apprenticeships declined dramatically during the depression, but revived somewhat with the passage in 1937 of the Fitzgerald Act, which provided for a federally promoted program (3, p. 10).

Because of the need for apprenticeships has changed dramatically over the decades, the need for apprenticeship training has dropped due to the rise of education and higher education such as four year institutions (4, p. xiii). However, the need is for apprenticeship is making a reappearance in schools and there are many reasons for that and research that shows this change.  Lev Vygotsky researched a concept of learning in a social context and this has led back to learning cognitive apprenticeship in the classroom.

[[[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lev_Vygotsky Lev Vygotsky]]] originated the concept of learning in social context.  His ideas of learning occurring in a social context and learning in the [[[http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/students/learning/lr1zpda.htm zone of proximal development]]], "emphasizes the role of social collaboration in the development of new skills..."(2, p. 432).

From this, the idea of modern research of apprenticeship shows both positive and negative sides.  For example, "research in which learners are observed in natural situation can provide important information that traditional experimental methods cannot" (2, p. 433).

This shows how learning by doing in a social context, apprenticeships, can create a better learning environment for some students.

The reason apprenticeship seems so important is because what is learned in school cannot always be applied to what is needed outside of school. 

This has led to practical classroom applications.

'''Classroom Applications:'''

There is a story that introduces the idea of cognitive apprenticeships in the opening of Chapter 13 of Richard Mayer's text, ''Learning and Instruction''(2).  They use a story called "Freddie Finds a Frog."  Freddie shows the frog to Mr. Mays and Mr. Mays says he'd like to take the frog fishing.  Freddie becomes upset by the suggestion.  The fact that the children in the class did not understand the double meaning led the teacher to start a dialogue in her class.  The learning in the social context shows the need for the children to discuss the meanings and come to a conclusion.  This should then result in better understanding of the story and retention for the children in the class (2, p. 431).  This also reflects how students learn by doing and discussing the story leads to learning.  This effectively shows how apprenticeships should be utilized by the school system.

"Meaningful learning can take place in an apprenticeship context and samples [of] research literature test this idea" (2, p. 433).

'''Examples'''

1. [[Reciprocal teaching]]

2. [[Cooperative learning]]

3. [[Participatory modeling]]

4. Informal learning situations

5. [http://www.mainepublicservice.com/corporate/economic/incentives_mpap.asp The Maine Youth Apprentice Program]- a system for preparing youth for the world of work (4, p. 126).

'''Personal Testimony:'''

Cognitive apprenticeship rules were applied to my Algebra and Geometry classes because we were put into groups to help each other learn and comprehend the material and to discuss and work together to finish our tasks.

This is how I tend to run my math classroom as well. Math concepts, although they may seem rigid to some people, are very flexible and pose multiple ways to solve on problem. Often times the teacher will present a topic in one manner, but not all students will make the connections. Furthermore, students who do understand the problem may also see it in a different light or understand a peers misconceptions and misunderstandings moreso. As a result, it is often beneficial for students to team up with peers of altering understanding levels to relay a message in a different way. -M. Pule

In my high school, students have a choice of doing the regular academic track that prepares you for higher education, or they can do vocational training/preparation at an outsourced site in the area.  The technical training is a type of apprenticeship because it is learning by doing in a social context with an advisor that is teaching students occupational skills that they can use after high such as cosmetology or auto mechanics.

Another way apprenticeships work is in jobs that require you to learn specific steps.  For example, my sister's fiance is going through the apprenticeship program to be a carpenter.  He has to take classes at night while working full time to learn the skills that are necessary to be a carpenter, i.e. how to build stairs in a house (he has prototypes all over their basement).

I feel that student teaching will be much like an apprenticeship.  I am looking forward to learning as much as I can from the teachers at my two different placements next semester.  I am hoping that I will learn classroom management skills, curriculum planning, and hands on classroom applications.  I think student teaching and teaching practica are great steps into becoming an actual teacher.
-Jessica Arnold 

In Peoria, IL, the public high schools have a unique apprenticeship program.  One high school is the medical technologies high school where the students can learn basic nursing and orderly skills.  One high school is mechanics where students can learn to work with cars and other machinery.  One school is the technology school where students have the opportunity to take advanced computer science classes.  The final public high school is the fine arts school.  This school is well known for its theatre, choir, band, as well as other arts like painting or sculpture.  If a student shows special interest in one of these areas either in junior high or the early years of high school, he may take a placement/aptitude test so he can attend the high school of his choice in order to get some specific training.  I know this programs is at risk for losing its funding, but I sure hope it doesn't! ~Dianne Craig

At Springfield Southeast High School we have an apprenticeship program, Teaching Environmental Awareness through Children (TEACh).  This program is offered to 27 juniors and seniors, by recommendations, and allows them the opportunity to take on the role of an elementary school teacher and manage a classroom one to two days a week throughout the school year.  The apprenticeship methods used in the TEACh program are both traditional and cognitive.  It is a wonderful way for high school students to test the waters of teaching before they even get to college.
C. Watson

Another example of modern apprenticeship is in the world of academia for graduate students and advisors.  I was in the PhD. Program in Neuroscience at the University of Illinois and during this time I was fortunate enough to work under a husband and wife team that taught my not only laboratory techniques, but really how to think critically about any topic and how to see connections between seemingly unrelated events.  Such advisor-apprentice relationships can be very beneficial in that while learning your "trade" you have a person who actually has your best interests in mind. Fortunately for me, they also recognized that my potential and talents did not mesh with the academic world and supported me in changing to my current pursuit, education.  If some way could be found to apply such a situation to students in high school, I think many would find it very valuable.
:Timothy M. Zorn

Prior to my education as a teacher, I was a Girl Scout leader for 11 years.  I felt it was necessary for the girls to begin to look into the careers they might choose.  Since most of them were products of stay at home mothers, I didn't worry about that aspect.  But they were all exposed to the theater, education, law health careers and emergency services.  Each of them was given the opportunity to work with these organizations as helpers so that they could get a clear idea of what is required for this occupation.  It lead to many of them choosing a career earlier rather than later.  It was a short term apprenticeship, but one that had good ramifications for all involved.

Student teaching can also be considered a form of apprentiship.  I am sure that many educators have learned more from their pre-service teaching experiences than they ever did as a student. --Chris Royer--

During the first year of teaching chemistry in high school, I was assigned a few students to help me maintain the lab.  The experience quickly evolved into an apprenticeship for my students.  At first, I had them wash glassware.  Then, I allowed them to make solutions, using the masses that I told them to use.  When they were more comfortable, I finally allowed them to make solutions of a certain concentration based on their own calculations.  Near the end of the year, they were much more able to maintain a laboratory than they initially were.  They may not have all of the knowledge of a chemist, but it was a beneficial experience for them.
:Mindy Waters
<BR><BR>
 In the Chemistry Department at UIUC, the <a href="http://www.scs.uiuc.edu/chem/undergrad/chemmerit.html"> Merit Program</a> uses the cognitive apprenticeship technique to aid students of high potential from rural high schools and students from under represented minority groups to succeed in general chemistry and organic chemistry. The students attend the regular lecture and do the assigned homework, along with all other students. They also meet in groups in a two-hour workshop each week under the supervision of a graduate student teaching assistant to work through series of problems and exercises related to the classroom activities. The TA can guide but not give students the answers. This program works very well for some students, especially for highly motivated students who had a weak high school background in science and math. These students learn techniques for problem solving, form study groups that can help them in other classes, and learn to trust their own abilities to solve problems. Students at the top of the chemistry classes don’t find this approach useful because it is more time-consuming that other modes of learning the material. Students who lack sufficient motivation to read the textbook and attempt to work through problems on their own have nothing to contribute to the discussions and get very little out of it.<BR><BR>

It seems to me that cognitive apprenticeship is ever present in music programs throughout the state.  In small ensembles, students prepare for Solo and Ensemble contest and work together to discover more about the music they are performing.  I like to think of it as collective learning. ~W. Rank

My most meaningful learning experiences have come through apprenticeship experiences. As a high school student I was fortunate enough to have a summer job as a construction worker. I worked with a small crew of four to six carpenters as they built houses. I learned how to do concrete work, framing, roofing, siding, window and door installation, and general home repair. These were complex tasks that required a deep understanding to complete successfully and efficiently. Working with construction professionals, I was able to learn a lot about these processes, and experienced a great sense of self-fulfillment as I began to become a proficient and valuable member of a professional community. I think that teachers should constantly be looking for ways to incorporate apprenticeship activities in the classroom setting because there is simply no substitute for working and learning from experts in a field. – Jeremiah Johnson

In elementary school, I think a great way to get students involved in a type of apprenticeship program is through service learning.  Students can help out organizations in their communities and use what they learn in the classroom to assist in these programs.  I also think this kind of learning promotes intrinsic motivation.  E. Kilroy

The Chicago Public Schools have several buildings devoted to "career education" but they also have programs in the general high schools as well.  Students can study Horticulture, Computer Programming, Drafting, Carpentry, Law - in an environment that includes the typical high school course load.  P. O'Hara

'''related readings, research, or websites:'''

1.[http://www.wcer.wisc.edu/step/ep301/Fall2000/Tochonites/cogap.html Cognitive Apprenticeship]

2. [http://www.cc.gatech.edu/aimosaic/OLD/education/courses/cs8113R/presentations/cog-app.html Apprenticeship and Technology]

3. . Gore, Susan; Kadish, Stacey; Aseltine, Robert H Jr.. Career Centered High School Education and Post-High School Career Adaptation. [References]. [Peer Reviewed Journal] American Journal of Community Psychology. Vol 32(1-2) Sep 2003, 77-88. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Netherlands - shows how students transition into the work force after schooling, "analyses examine differences in these outcomes associated with taking a high school career-major versus a more traditional academic program"

4. [http://www.ascd.org/publications/ed_lead/199304/brandt.html Apprenticeships in School]

5. [http://www.wested.org/cs/sli/print/docs/sli/ra_framework.htm Reading Apprenticeship Framework]

'''Critics:'''

Problems arise when introducing and using apprenticeships with so much focus on higher education and the waxing and waning of the use of apprenticeships. However, the idea of apprenticeships and why they work can be incorporated into the classroom setting rather then teaching for specific jobs, we can teach using learning in a social context through techniques mentioned above.


'''References:'''

1. Swanson, R., & Holton, E., (2001). Foundations of Human Resource Development. Berrett-Koehler Publishers, Inc., San Francisco.

2. Mayer, R.(2003) Learning and Instruction. New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc. 

3. Duffy, N.F. (Ed.). (1967). Essays on Apprenticeship. Wisconsin: Center for Studies in Vocational and Technical Education.

4. McKernan, J.R. (1994). Making the Grade: How a new youth apprenticeship system can change our schools and save American jobs. Boston: Little, Brown, and Company.


[[Category: EPSY400 ClassroomLearning]]
[[Category: EPSY490 ClassroomLearningAndManagement(CTER)]]