Technology as a 2nd Language

From WikEd

By Debbie Schor Plested, May 2010

Technology as a 2nd Language: The Role of Technology in the ESL Classroom

Introduction, Descriptions, Definitions and History

This page examines the role technology and technological competence can and should play in the English as a Second Language or "ESL" (for short) classroom, not just as a teaching tool but as a communication skill in its right...right on par with listening, speaking, reading, and writing. The wide spread use of computers and electronic communication has resulted in a whole new workplace vernacular involving technical jargon, emoticons, common abbreviations, and levels of formality, all ripe with potential for communication breakdowns. Challenging enough for a native speaker, it is a virtual mine field for 2nd language learners. Even techno-savvy newcomers must learn the accompanying language competencies that enable them to utilize this technical knowledge effectively.

Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) Defined

According to Wikipedia, Computer Assisted Language Learning or CALL can be defined as a form of computer-based learning which carries two important features: bidirectional learning and individualized learning. CALL materials are student-centered tools which are designed to promote accelerated self-paced learning.

A History of CALL

As per Lee (2000), “Computers have been used for language teaching ever since the 1960s." Warschauer (1999) and Lee (2000) trace the evolution and development of CALL through 3 distinct phases.

Behaviorist CALL

According to Lee (2000), During the 1960's and 1970's, the first form of Computer-Assisted Language Learning featured repetitive language drills, known as the drill-and-practice method. Based on the Behaviorist learning model the computer was viewed as a mechanical tutor that never grew tired. The thinking during this era was that repeated exposure to language was beneficial for the student, the computer did not get bored, and it provided immediate non-judgmental feedback. Students worked at their own pace, outside of the time spent in the classroom. Drill and practice exercises in this early phase of CALL were used primarily for explicit grammar instruction, drilling and translation tests.

Communicative CALL

Further to Lee (2000), Communicative CALL emerged in the 1970's and 1980's as a reaction against the behaviorist approach to language learning. Proponents of communicative CALL rejected behaviorist approaches at both the theoretical and pedagogical level. Communicative CALL focused more on USING grammatical forms appropriately in context rather than on the forms themselves and on teaching grammar implicitly rather than explicitly. Students were encouraged to generate original utterances as opposed to parroting prefabricated ones. As mistakes were now perceived as a beneficial part of the learning process, the feedback being provided avoided the label of right and wrong (Warchaurer 1999). This emerging form of computer-based instruction corresponded to cognitive theories which recognized that "learning was a creative process of discovery, expression, and development” During this era, the mainframe was being replaced by personal computers therefore creating opportunities for greater possibilities for individual work (Lee, 2000).

Communicative Language Teaching and Communicative CALL

Communicative CALL is consistent with the changes evolving in ESL language learning and teaching pedagogy during the time. “The goals of language learning shifted [away] from a focus on vocabulary and grammar knowledge to include authentic, meaningful communication and integrative creative construction of language skills. These interactive language learning methods collectively became know as Communicative Language Teaching” (Kaur Khalsa, Maloney-Krichmar & Kreeft Payton, 2007, p. 19).

Communicative Language Teaching viewed communication as dealing with large stretches of language not unrelated words. Communication was seen to exist with time constraints, a real setting, and with real participants. Communication was also now seen to take place in a sociocultural context. In addition to grammatical and syntax conventions, effective communication utilized conventions regarding appropriateness and inappropriateness. The successful language learner needed to develop strategies and tactics to convey meaning and repair communication breakdowns. The new communicative model was based on 4 areas of linguistic competence: Linguistic (or Grammatical) Competence, Discourse Competence, Sociolinguistic Competence and, Strategic Competence (Canale, & Swain, 1980).

Linguistic (or grammatical) competence reflects a person’s knowledge of the linguistic code itself.
Discourse competence, which complements grammatical competence, refers to the learner’s ability to connect sentences, and to use chunks of language longer than several sentences to form a meaningful whole.
Sociolinguistic competence takes into account what is considered appropriate within the context of a culture.
Strategic competence refers to the strategies we use to enhance the effectiveness of the message or to repair communication breakdowns. These include verbal or non-verbal strategies, which are used to get the message across to the listener.

Integrative CALL

The current phase of Computer Assisted Language Learning described by Warschauer and Lee is referred to as Integrative CALL. “Communicative CALL was criticized for using the computer in an ad hoc and disconnected fashion”. With the Communicative Language Teaching methods popularized in the 1980’s, teachers had “moved away from a cognitive view of communicative language teaching to a socio-cognitive view that emphasizes real language use in a meaningful, authentic context” (Lee, 2000). “Integrative approaches to CALL are based on two important technological developments of the last decade - multimedia computers and the Internet. Multimedia technology … allows a variety of media (text, graphics, sound, animation, and video) to be accessed on a single machine” (Warschauer, 1999). Warshuauer goes on to describe that “What makes multimedia even more powerful is that it also entails hypermedia. That means that the multimedia resources are all linked together and that learners can navigate their own path simply by pointing and clicking a mouse (p. 5)”.

Consistent with the evolution of the Communicative Language Teaching Methodology, “Integrative CALL seeks both to integrate the various skills of language learning (listening, speaking, writing, and reading) and to integrate technology more fully into language teaching. To this end the multimedia-networked computer provides a range of informational, communicative, and publishing tools that are potentially available to every student” (Lee 2000). According to Warschauer (1999), student autonomy is supported as the learner remains in control of the technology, students experience a more authentic learning environment (such as when listening is combined with seeing) and hypermedia allows learners to focus on both FORM and CONTENT and the easy integration of skills. While the primary lesson outcome can be in the foreground, language lesson objectives need not be sacrificed as grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation resources are simultaneously available in the background.

CALL Applications in the ESL Classroom

21st Century Classroom

In Educating the Net Generation Chapter 3, Greg Roberts describes The Internet Generation’s extremely high expectations of their instructors, not only in regards to the instructor’s subject area expertise, but also as to the instructor’s ability to use and integrate current technology into their curriculum. Today’s ESL Teachers must understand how to build language skills while capitalizing on the technological expectations of their students. Not only does the use of technology make sense because students like and expect it, but it is also pedagogically sound.

20th Century Teacher or 21st Century Teacher...Which One Are You?

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pJYpsB3o0Uc

Which One Does She Need?

I'm a PC and I'm 4 and a Half

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DtilWL4mnhI

Technology in the ESL Classroom

According to Standiford (1983) in her analysis of Computers in the English Classroom: A Primer for Teachers “Computers are used in the classroom in three different ways: [1] as the focus of instruction (i.e. teaching about computers), [2] as the delivery medium of instruction (i.e. teaching with computers) and [3] as the manager of instruction; …Whether the computer provides delivery or support, the teacher retains the role of instructional decision maker and as such, must design ways to integrate the computer into the conventional curriculum” (Standiford, 2003, p. 15)

According to Kaur Khalsa, Maloney-Krichmar & Kreeft Payton, (2007, pp. 22-23), the benefits of computer assisted interaction in the language classroom are outlined as:

authenticity
voice
equal learning opportunities
individual attention
freedom of expression
convenience and accessibility
engagement
collaboration
technological literacy

TEACHING WITH Computers

Numbers 1-8 (above) of the Kaur Khalsa, Maloney-Krichmar & Kreeft Payton model developed for the language-learning-classroom are consistent with Standiford’s categorization of “Teaching WITH Computers”. Kaur Khalsa, Maloney-Krichmar & Kreeft Payton elaborate that teaching with computers in the language classroom provides students with:

Authenticity – Educational technologies expose students to authentic, relevant and meaningful language. Language learners gain access to virtually limitless sources of written and spoken English in an internet enabled integrative CALL environment. As per Hanson-Smith this “provides a sociocultural environment that is realistic natural and meaningful and that reinforces and motivates learners”.

Voice – Online language learners have the opportunity to participate in a variety, of written, spoken and multimedia based communication and activities with a wide range of native and non-native speakers, as well as with their teachers and their peers.

Equal learning opportunities: Online experiences open up a wide variant of opportunities for students to participate whom might not otherwise be able to or feel uncomfortable participating in the classroom…a classroom where they my be too shy to speak up, feel dominated by other more outspoken students, or possibly just feel more comfortable in a different, less immediate medium.

Individual attention – Educational technologies enhance student-to-student communication and student-to-teacher communication. Online communication as well as interactions with language programs provide a wealth of opportunities for greater teacher student communications as well as time on task activities and feedback provided by the computer that are supplemental to those available during the constraints of a face to face classroom.

Freedom of expression- Research as shown that “people often feel freer to express their feelings online than in person and are more comfortable asking questions and expressing ideas to their teachers and other students in online environments

Convenience and accessibility - Anytime anywhere access provides students and teachers with the ability to access ESL materials remotely, as required, in order to meet both the needs of their learning, as well as, the needs and curriculum.

Engagement - Educational technologies draw on a variety of resources, while appealing to a wide range of learning styles by involving student in both active learning and exposing them to a variety of textual and multimedia instructional activities.'

(Kaur Khalsa, Maloney-Krichmar & Kreeft Payton, 2007, pp. 22-23)

Tools for the ESL Classroom

Although far from exhaustive, the list below provides a sampling of some of the current open source and low barrier (low barrier defined by cost, learning curve, and required technological environment) tools available to ESL teachers today. The tools below are reflective of the widely available software, network, and hardware technologies that can be used to enhance language learning and provide exponential opportunities for time-on-task practice in the areas of (a) input (listening and reading), (b) output (speaking. pronunciation and writing), (c) vocabulary development (using the lexical approach and concordancers), and (d) virtual communications.

Courseware

A wealth of vendor / publisher supplied electronic courseware exists in support of all of the 4 ESL skill areas of writing, reading, pronunciation and speaking. Courseware exists in the forms of both stand-alone products or can be provided as supplementary materials for the publisher’s print catalogue. Additionally, many authors and publishers are now offering supplementary websites to support their texts. These sites may be for a fee or free-of-charge.

Free and Open Source

In addition to publisher based materials there is an abundance of web-based open source, Free, and Freemium, materials available for instructors wishing to integrate technology into their ESL classroom.

The Internet, Websites, & Virtual Classrooms

Websites create a rich source of mostly free-of-charge authentic content, language and information that was previously unimaginable. Instructors and students can choose from a variety of sites that are both authentic for native speakers as well as ESL specific. Additionally with Social Networking, collaborative writing sites such as Google Docs, and email, the network provides anytime, anywhere opportunities for collaborative activities and internet based project work. Virtual web-based meeting rooms, such as Dim Dimand Elluminate's Learn Central VRoom, used with or without webcams can be used for private tutorials as well as to support group work and collaboration outside of class from the comfort of the student’s own home. As the principle goal of language learning is communication, collaborative activities such as these support students in their quest to interact and negotiate meaning with each other.

English Learning For Kids

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g-E9wpvlnUk

Webquests

A WEBQUEST is an online scavenger-hunt-like inquiry project in which all or most of the material can be found on-line. Webquests may be developed as individual projects although they are usually collaborative. Webquests can be designed to serve a short term objective such as for a lab period or for homework, either to activate the students prior knowledge or to reinforce materials covered in class, or they can be developed into longer term projects in which students analyze information and engage in critical thinking activities on a deeper level.

Social Networking, Blogs and Wikis

Facebook created a communication revolution. As with speakers of all languages, social networking sites provide opportunities for ESL students to connect and create both global and by invitation only online support communities. Podcasts, Wikis, and Blogs are all examples of social networking tools available free of charge to collaborate and communicate on line.

Podcasts are audio files that can be created with free software such as Audacity and shared on the Internet. Wikis are collaborative web pages that can be edited by any user. Blogs are web pages with regular sequential date-based journal entries. Mentioned above, Google Docs is a free service from Google in which individuals or groups of individuals can upload, share, edit, and save documents online from any computer. With all of these social networking applications, content can be generated by the teacher or by the students, either individually or collaboratively. Furthermore, with the widespread availability of professional, teacher, and student created podcasts now available social networking supports all four of the language skills (reading, writing, speaking and listening). Students are not only encouraged to just add their own content but to support their peers through online peer feedback and editing.

Online Reference Tools and Dictionaries

The Internet is a limitless source of dictionary, thesauruses, linguistic primers and references materials. With these resources at the student’s fingertips they are no longer constrained by the materials covered in class or the assigned text. As English is a living breathing language numerous slang, idiom (e.g. The Idiom Connection,) and street dictionaries (e.g. Urban Dictionary) abound to help students avoid embarrassment and keep up to date with our constantly evolving language. Another advantage to online dictionaries, over the more “traditional” paper-based ones, is that online dictionaries provide audio pronunciation links that help students develop correct pronunciation without having to decipher (often incorrectly) the pronunciation key found in text-based dictionaries.

Concordancers, Corpus, & the Lexical Approach

Popularized in the 1990’s The Lexical Approach promotes language learning by helping students to be able to recognize and produce language in chunks. A collocation is a group or pair of words that go together as a chunk. For example a native English speaker will intuitively say “print me a hard copy of that email”, not “print me an unbreakable copy of that email”. The difference, however, is not intuitive to a second language student. Also, especially problematic for ESL students are prepositions. Coming from first languages that either don't use discrete prepositions (such as German) or which use comparable prepositions differently, until recently, we as ESL teachers did not have many options besides drill and practice. Trying to assist our students understand which “synonyms” were appropriate in context, ESL teachers were left with unsatisfying answers such as “that’s just the way we say it in English…I’m sorry you just have to memorize it.” Useful to both students and teachers, a concordancer is a type of search engine that searches large language data bases called corpus and makes indexes, word lists, counts word frequencies, and highlights words that commonly go together. Numerous concordancers, today, are readily accessible on the internet.

For more information check out Links_For_ESL for a list of useful ESL websites.

Interactive Hardware

As interactivity becomes a larger part of the regular education classroom, teachers of ESL students are turning to specific tools that provide additional avenues of synthesis, recall, and production of content in both ELL classes and in the regular classroom. Devices such as the Livescribe Pulse smartpen (http://www.livescribe.com/smartpen/index.html) allow students to work with familiar tools, such as pen and paper, but with a layer of functionality built on top of these normal uses. Pens that record what the student writes, and record the audio from the surrounding environment, allow students to focus on notetaking skills and basic integration of knowledge, then review content at a later time for mastery. By encouraging multiple engagements with the content, these types of smartpens free the ELL student who may be struggling to keep up in a social studies classroom from worrying about remembering everything that was said. They can take the recorded notes and audio to ELL teachers who can help them understand the content better, and in context of their normal academic classroom.

MANAGING WITH Computers

Standiford (1983) also speaks of the benefits of “MANAGING with computers" . In Intentional Cognitional Theory and Research: Language Learning Strategies Chao (2007), discusses the metacognitive language learning strategies and related computer enhanced support activities that “involve planning for learning, thinking about the learning process as it is taking place, monitoring of one’s production or comprehension, and evaluation learning after an activity is completed" (p. 297).

Furthermore, in “Teaching by Principals, an Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy Brown (2001), describes the cognitive and affective factors associated with successful language learning. Especially relevant here are the principles of Meaningful Learning, Intrinsic Motivation and Self Confidence. Summarizing ESL second language acquisition, and learning theory literatures, Chao (2007) goes on to detail the conditions found in optional language learning environments. These include: supporting learner autonomy, learners interacting in the target language with an authentic audience, learners having enough time and feedback, learners being involved in authentic tasks, and learners having the opportunities to interact and negotiate meaning. Traynor (1999) further highlights how personalizing information through learner choice increases learner interest in given tasks, increases motivation by proving a context for the learner that stimulates their curiosity, is intrinsically motivating and relevant and increases their self esteem.

Towards these objectives, in an integrative computer assisted language learning (CALL) environment, the computer offers the learner a wealth of authentic materials, activities, and resources which help the learner measure their comprehension and production while simultaneously allowing the learner to choose materials, determine for themselves what areas they require remedial attention in, and control the pace, as well as the direction of their learning. As meaningful learning leads to better long term retention than rote learning and the most powerful rewards are those that are intrinsically motivated by the learner (Brown 2001), supportive educational technologies can empower language students to assume responsibility of their own learning and engage in higher order thinking and planning skills.

Evidence of Effectiveness

Current and available research on the effectiveness of 3rd-Wave-Integrative-CALL paradigms using multimedia technology with a variety of media such as text, graphics, sound, animation, and video, is still emerging.

In Multimedia Learning in Second Language Acquisition, Plass and Jones (2005) describe some of the limitations of existing research on second language acquisition with multimedia as follows: “Despite progress, limitations exist in the present research that stem from problems with the research design and implementation and from limitations within the areas of second language acquisition that have been investigated (p. 477). Specifically, Plass and Jones find (pp. 477-479) that:

It is a challenging task for researchers to conduct investigations in the authentic settings which language is normally acquired using rigorous, relevant and meaningful research designs. Therefore, researchers are required to conduct studies of a more experimental nature in less authentic settings.
Concerns exist regarding the use of learning outcome measures. Rather than using typical “off line measures” more emphasis needs to be placed on user-tracking software that when “embedded in the learning environment, provides detailed information about student’s actual behaviour during the learning task."
Certain areas of second-language acquisition have received less attention than others. These include: 1) listening comprehension in a multimedia environment; 2) assessment of output of language competence after students have had an opportunity to adjust their performance based on interaction and feedback; 3) Data as to if research and findings on materials designed solely for language teaching transfer to mainstream non-language-specific materials.
Existing research has been limited in scope and not yet applied to larger-scale multimedia and web-based applications.

Not withstanding the above concerns, a number of positive finding exist. According to Plass and Jones (2005, pp. 473-475):

Research on the effectiveness of the use of annotations is one of the most widely studied topics in the context of multimedia use for second language acquisition. “The availability of picture annotations facilitated vocabulary acquisition and that vocabulary words learned with picture annotations were better retained that those learned with textual annotations”
Research also shows that “incidental vocabulary acquisition and text comprehension was best for words where learners looked up both picture and text annotations".
Additionally “results of both immediate and delayed tests showed that definitions for key words in the form of both text and pictorial annotations let to better vocabulary learning that did the single annotations.”. It should be noted, however, that while “pictorial annotations led to greater results on pictorial and written vocabulary recognition tests than did text annotations…text annotations lead to greater results on production tests than did pictorial annotations.”.
When, as in a multimedia environment, learners are able to control the order, pace, and choice of materials, and were able to review helpful materials as needed, results showed that students “recalled more ideas from the text than learners who did not have control over pace and order. Plass and Jones go on to report that learner control “provides students with the opportunity to interact with the materials to construct meaning, and that this interaction is especially necessary for student with less efficient learning strategies.”.

Constructivism suggests that individuals generate knowledge and meaning from their own experiences and interpretation of the external world. In his work on Autonomy in Language Learning Benson (2000) describes how “Constructivist approaches to the psychology of learning provide strong support for the contention that effective learning begins from the learner’s active participation in the process of learning. If knowledge is constructed uniquely within each individual through processes of social interaction, it follows that learning will be most effective when learners are fully involved in decisions about the content and processes of learning.” (Benson, 2001, p. 36), and how “...text manipulation and computer-mediated communication applications offer greater opportunities for the development of control over learner content” (Benson, 2001, p. 140).

Schultz (2000) describes how “With the advent of the word processor, the teaching of writing has drastically changed, making the radical revision of text possible with a few keystrokes. This technological ease of revision has in turn served to bolster the parallel shift in the teaching of writing from an end-product approach where the teacher alone reads and comments on papers students have written without the benefit of feedback on a rough draft, to a process approach, where students work in small groups of peers for suggestions for multiple drafts, subsequently revising their papers before finally handing them in to the teacher. In foreign language as well, process writing has become the accepted approach not only because it has been shown to improve students’ writing significantly, but also in part because it necessitates verbal communication in small groups on an authentic task, thus articulating particularly well with the communicative goals for the foreign language classroom” (Schultz, 2000, p.121).

Smidt and Hegelheimer’s (2004) study on the enhancement of listening comprehension using CALL-based academic lectures also found that it is beneficial for lecturers to utilize multimedia learner controlled video-based lectures online. They report “...listening comprehension may be enhanced for intermediate adult learners by using multiple media when delivering a lecture, …[and] incidental vocabulary acquisition can occur through the use of authentic online videos of academic lectures embedded in a CALL activity.” (p. 541). Smidt and Hegelheimer further found this result was supported by “the strong relationship between the post-test and the delayed post-test for the items answered incorrectly on the pre-test….Thus the use of online video in combination with comprehension checks and access to further resources in the form of a dictionary, for example, encourage learning beyond the content and help learners acquire language as well, making it a valid pedagogical choice” (p. 541).

When considering the implications of multimedia learning for language students on learning strategies, Smidt and Hegelheimer went on to find that “student-control may be a good feature to have in CALL activities intended for self-study purposes since the most popular strategy employed was ‘listen again’”. Further commenting on metacognitive strategies, however, the authors report that low proficiency learners failed to employ this strategy as frequently as higher proficiency learners, suggesting that “the need for strategy teaching to be incorporated into language teaching approaches” (p. 541).

In summary, as per Lee (2000), research and practice suggest that appropriately implemented, network-based technology can significantly contribute to the language student’s experiential learning, improved motivation, enhanced achievement, limitless access to authentic materials for study, greater interaction with their classmates, teacher, as well as other foreign language students that they have never met, individualization, independence from a single source of information and participation in a global classroom, practicing English communication on a global level.

Looking to the future, Plass and Jones (2005) recommend the following directions for research as it relates to the use of multimedia for the purpose of enhanced second language acquisition. They include:

Comprehensible Input

How can multimedia be used to enhance noticing of relevant linguistic features of input?
How can multimedia help learners in comprehending the semantic and syntactic aspects of the input?

Comprehensible Output

How can multimedia enhance learners’ opportunities to produce output in the target language?
How can multimedia help learners notice errors in their output and correct them?

Interaction

What kind of multimedia-based second-language acquisition tasks can be provided that engage learners in interaction with language input and output?
How can multimedia help learners modify the structure of the target language input to make it more comprehensible?

(p.482)

Critics and their Rationale

Regrettably, many ESL instructors remain largely unconvinced of the need for technological competence. Too often one hears “This is a language program not a technology program.”, or “We are teaching our students to communicate not how to use technology.”.

Kaur Khalsa, Maloney-Krichmar, & Kreeft Peyton (2007, pp.25-26) highlight other challenges associated with computer-mediated interactions as well. One such challenge has to do with the absence of social cues in an online environment. Missing from online communication are face-to-face cues such as body language, tone of voice, gestures, status and familiarity indicators, and other non verbal cues which are critical to the area of sociolinguistic competence described in the communicative competency model.

Another complexity described by Kaur Khalsa, Maloney-Krichmar, & Kreeft Peyton is the challenge involved with developing realistic expectations and trust in an online space. Areas for potential communication breakdown include failure to establish the purpose of online activities and the roles that students and teachers will play. Hurt feelings can develop when teachers fail to establish realistic expectations regarding turnaround time for post responses, grade assignments and other communication. Students need time to develop trust and confidence in each other as well, especially where group work is involved.

In 1986, Chapelle and Jamison found that the “time spent using and attitude toward CALL were significantly related to [the user‘s] field independence and motivational intensity. These results indicate that (a) certain types of learners may be better suited to some CALL materials than others students and (b) it is necessary to consider many learner variables when researching the effectiveness of call" (Chapelle, & Jamison, 1986, p.27).

15 years on, Benson (2001) still finds that “in the case of CALL in particular, there is also an assumption that technology can provide learners with the kinds of support they need in order to develop skills associated with autonomy. This cannot be regarded as more than a potential, however…it may be that learners require a degree of autonomy in advance in order to use new technologies effectively” (Benson, 2001, p. 140).

Teaching ABOUT Computers: Technological Competence - The 5th Communicative Competency

In addition to teaching with computers and managing with computers, in Computers in the English Classroom, Standiford (1983) discusses a 3rd function for computers: Teaching ABOUT them, or as defined by Kaur Khalsa, Maloney-Krichmar & Kreeft Payton in their nine benefits of computer assisted interaction in the language classroom, "technological literacy" (2007 p. 23). Hanson Smith (2006) elaborates on their ninth benefit: technological literacy and the importance of the "new literacies" for the goals of the language-learning-classroom. These new literacies include visual, informational, technological and media literacy, which “are seen as essential “to helping learners become fully realized human beings” (p. 3).

In Digital Natives Digital Immigrants Marc Prensky (2001) writes:

“Today's students - K through college represent the first generations to grow up with this new technology. They have spent their entire lives surrounded by and using computers, videogames, digital music players, video cams, cell phones, and all the other toys and tools of the digital age. What should we call these new students of today?.... The most useful designation I have found for them is Digital Natives. Our students today are all native speakers of the digital language of computers, video games and the Internet.

So what does that make the rest of us? Those of us who were not born into the digital world but have, at some later point in our lives, become fascinated by and adopted many or most aspects of the new technology are, and always will be compared to them, Digital Immigrants The importance of the distinction is this: As Digital Immigrants learn – like all immigrants, some better than others – to adapt to their environment, they always retain, to some degree, their "accent," that is, their foot in the past. The “digital immigrant accent” can be seen in such things as turning to the Internet for information second rather than first, or in reading the manual for a program rather than assuming that the program itself will teach us to use it. Today’s older folk were "socialized" differently from their kids, and are now in the process of learning a new language. And a language learned later in life, scientists tell us, goes into a different part of the brain."

For ESL practitioners attempting to introduce technology into their classrooms for the first time, the metaphor is extremely apropos. Digital Immigrants, share many similarities with more “traditional immigrants” such as their own perceptions about their ability to adapt to their new community, belief in one's problem solving abilities based on past successes or failures, concerns regarding loss of status when it comes to how their past experiences and methods are valued in this new arena, and loosing face with both their students and colleagues. Many ESL practitioners today were educated before the technology revolution that has transformed the way we work and communicate. Not wanting to lose face with their “plugged in” students, instructors avoid using the very tools they need to capture the students’ interest and respect. Yet, in avoiding those tools they often experience the loss of respect they feared most.

The ability to use and communicate with computers and technology is now a basic requirement for success in any workplace. It ought to go without saying that electronic communication is now ubiquitous to the infrastructure of almost all organizations today. In Essentials of Business Communication for English Language Learners the authors describe the growing demand for information and the need for electronic communication. (Guffrey, Almonte, & Karka, 2009, p. 80). Technology-based outcomes exist at every benchmark level of the Canadian Language Benchmarks for Adults Guide. Human Resources and Skills Development Canada in their Readers’ Guide to Essential Skills Profiles defines computer use as an essential skill, while the Canadian Language Benchmarks' Essential Skills Website defines essential skills as those “skills needed for work, learning and life. They provide the foundation for learning all other skills and enable people to evolve with their jobs and adapt to workplace change.”

There is much we can do to help digital immigrants avoid having their digital accent become fossilized, or fixed. When mentoring digital immigrants of any kind, especially teachers, remember to be respectful, not dismissive. Adult learners have a wealth of experience and content knowledge that has taken years to develop. Try working with them one on one. Be mindful that all of us are afraid of losing face. When you are accustomed to being an expert, it is only natural that you try to avoid looking foolish in front of both your students and your peers. Personalize your learning session. Find out what they do in class and start small. Choose one small, simple activity that they can be successful with. Try collaborating with them. With their vast repertoire of activities and your technical knowledge you can make a great team. Finally, remember students benefit from a wide range of teaching styles and lesson activities. If everyone on the team had the same skills and perspective it would be a waste. If a few teachers don’t use technology in their program it is not the end of the world.

As discussed above, workplace and academic communication increasingly now includes such a wide range of technology-based communication modes, that even techno-savvy newcomers must learn the accompanying language competencies that enable them to utilize this technical knowledge effectively. Is it not one of our main objectives as language teachers to prepare our students to communicate successfully in the workplace? It is my assertion that it is time for ESL practitioners to update Swain’s 1980’s communicative competency model and its 4 areas of linguistic competence (grammatical competence, discourse competence, sociolinguistic competence and, strategic competence) and add Technological Competence: The Fifth Communicative Competency! The wide spread use of computers and electronic communication has resulted in a whole new workplace vernacular involving technical jargon, emoticons, common abbreviations, and appropriate levels of formality, and potential communication breakdowns. Challenging enough for a native speaker, it is a virtual mine field for 2nd language learners.

Towards an Integrated Language / Technology Program

The George Brown College, School of English as a Second Language, has developed and implemented integrated language and technology expectations within their Intensive English Program: As students progress through the program, they are expected to demonstate technological competence as outlined below:

ESL200

Speaking & Writing: Name/label the major components of a computer and the computer desktop
Listening: Enter and exit a familiar program with assistance

ESL300

Listening & Reading:

Follow oral or written instructions to access an internet site. Locate and download information on the site. (Instructions are very precise)
Follow oral or written instructions to complete and print a basic word processing activity

ESL400

Listening & Reading: Follow oral or written instructions to complete an intermediate word processing activity including saving, retrieving and printing. Apply knowledge of word-processing related vocabulary by locating common icons, and selecting options from the toolbar and mouse (toolbar, right click, left click, mouse, margins, spacing etc).

ESL400/500

Reading: Work independently to increase vocabulary with the assistance of a variety of electronic dictionary, spell check and thesaurus tools

ESL500

Listening & Reading: Follow oral or written instructions to set up an English email account.
Speaking & Writing: Describes words and expressions relating to the use of email (e.g. distribution list, shouting, cc, bcc, forward, reply, reply all, address list).
Speaking & Writing: Describes words and expressions relating to the Internet and the World Wide Web (e.g. URL, netiquette, Google, search engine etc)
Reading: Work independently to increase vocabulary and proficiency with the assistance of on line help menus
Writing:, Submit assignments electronically using email
Reading: Follow oral or written instructions to access an internet site. Explore a Web Site via an Internet Web Quest. Skim, Scan and “Surf” for information.
Critical Thinking: Apply knowledge of email related words and expressions by locating common icons, and selecting options from the toolbar and mouse

ESL600

Critical Thinking: Apply knowledge of words and expressions relating to the Internet and the World Wide Web by signing on to the Internet, locating common icons, selecting options from the toolbar and mouse, and conducting an Internet search and online research.
Writing: Submit assignments using an email attachment

ESL700

Writing & Reading: Access and complete an online form or survey. Create visual aids for a presentation using presentation software and smartclass technologies.

ESL700 & 800

Writing & Reading: Collaborate on assignments with other students using technology as a communication tool (e.g. email, MSN, Blogs, Web CT etc).

Getting Started: If you are an ESL teacher interested in:

weaving technology into the fabric of your lessons and
exploring the use of technology in workplace communications and second language learning with an emphasis on facilitating learner self-sufficiency for students at intermediate to advanced skill levels

go to Technology as a 2nd Language where you can experience hands-on many of the widely available technological tools available to enhance language learning in the core ESL skill areas.

Medieval Helpdesk

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yUQRbqc2qtY

Diversity Considerations

Multiple Intelligences

Howard Gardner’s 1983 theory of Multiple Intelligence proposed to broaden understanding regarding the definition of intelligence and the way we process, learn and remember information. Multiple intelligence theory, suggests there are nine distinct forms of intelligence. According to Gardner, different individuals rely more heavily on different forms of intelligence. These differing forms of intelligence are defined by Gardner as Visual-spatial, Verbal-linguistic, Logical-mathematical, Bodily-kinesthetic, Musical-rhythmic, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, Naturalistic and Existential.

By definition the wide variety of text, graphics, still images, sound, animations, simulations and video available via multimedia learning technologies support and accommodate the diverse learning needs of a diverse student body. In The Relevance of Multiple Intelligences to Call Instruction, Kim (2009) finds that “Foreign language teachers may help students learn better by tapping into one or more of the intelligences that an individual student might use dominantly” (p. 4).

Kim (2009) goes on to summarize the various way multiple intelligence learning is supported by CALL activities in the language classroom:

Linguistic Intelligence

keyboarding, practicing language skills with interactive software or on Websites, using word processors, using spelling and grammar checkers, creating multimedia reports, writing and reading email, text and videoconferencing, using speech recognition devices, using a concordancer, using translation software or Websites, using the Web for research

Logical-Mathematical Intelligence

using software or Websites with brain teasers, puzzles, games of logic, etc .

Spatial Intelligence

playing card games, using graphics programs, learning with pictures on CD or DVD or with video clips on the Web, using presentation software, creating videos or digital storytelling products

Kinesthetic Intelligence

playing computer games, using TPR-based instructional software, using simulation software or virtual reality environments on the Web

Musical Intelligence

listening to and interacting with songs on software or on the Web, composing digital music live or on interactive Websites

Interpersonal Intelligence

using email, text or voice chatting, using cell phones and PDAs, engaging in computer-supported collaborative learning (e.g., e-pals or the GLOBE project)

Intrapersonal Intelligence

using intelligent tutoring systems, using speech recognition devices, using news groups, meta-cognitive journaling or blogging, using mind-mapping software or Websites, learning about computers using software or Websites

(p. 6)

Kim concludes that Multiple Intelligence based “language learning through technology offers a powerful combination that will surely help teachers create better and more flexible, reflective, logical and creative activities” (Kim 2009, p. 13).

Accessibility

Of course good technology needs to be accessible to a wide variety of audiences and learners. The Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG) define accessible technology based on four guiding principles: To be accessible technology needs to be: perceivable, operable, understandable and robust. Specific recommendations include providing text alternatives for non-text content so that it can be changed into the other forms people need, such as large print, Braille, speech, symbols or simpler language as well as alternatives for time based media, making all functionality available from a keyboard, providing users enough time to read and use content, and providing ways to help users navigate, find content and determine where they are. For a full list of recommendations and guidelines go to: Essential Components of Web Accessibility.

Digital Divide

No discussion about technology and diversity would be complete without a discussion on the Digital Divide. Describing the social and political implications of the gap between people with access to technology and those with limited or no access at all, the term "digital divide" emerged in the 1990's and has evolved over time to encompass a number of individual and infrastructure level access factors resulting in disadvantage. These include: socioeconomic status, gender, race, age and location. The term global digital divide refers to differences in technology access between individual countries and the rest of the world.

Adult English as a Second Language students are likely to be considered disadvantaged from a digital divide perspective in a number of key areas. Coming from parts of the world where the technological infrastructure is not as sophisticated as in North America means many ESL students never had the kind of exposure to technology that many of their classmates take for granted. Like many immigrants they face financial challenges in their new country and are unable to afford the latest technology in their homes. As older learners they are part of the “Digital Immigrant” generation discussed above.

The Washington State Technology Task Force which developed a number of guiding principles for Educational Technologies, states that "In our rapidly changing world, the economic viability of communities and individuals depends on the ability to access information, build knowledge, and solve problems. Technology plays a key role in the process and students must develop skills in its use." (Whitehead, Jensen, Boschee, 2003, p.86). Access to technology and training within the school provides opportunities for students to begin to bridge the digital divide, but as educators we must remember it not a simple problem to overcome. Despite recommendations that 25%-30% of a technology budget should be for professional development (Whitehead, Jensen, Boschee, 2003, p.68), far too frequently teachers themselves have insufficient training in the educational technologies available to them, and are often trained in how to use technology without being trained effectively in what to do with technology. Even with proper training, teachers themselves need to remind themselves to remain sensitive to the place their students are starting from. Time needs to be dedicated to ensuring all learners have the basic skills which they require to complete assigned class work. Core technologies need to be available on campus, while assumptions regarding home access need to be avoided. Younger teachers need to take care to not dismiss their older colleagues and students as obsolete. Finally, all educators need to remain sensitive while continuing to push their students gently into the 21st century workplace.

Signed Life Experiences, Testimonies and Stories

We have about 20 of the Pulse Smartpens in our schools. I ordered one to show special education and our ELL coordinator, and that inspired them to order them to pilot in various classrooms. While there are other uses, the two primary uses so far are:

1) Turning handwritten text into PDF documents on the computer. Students take notes using the pen, then dock the pen (via USB). The software reads what the pen captured and turns it into a PDF, JPG, or a one of a few other document types. Students can then incorporate that image into another document, review it later, or share it with others.

2) Associating audio and text. By tapping the "record" button at the bottom of the notebook page (it uses special notebook paper which looks like normal paper, but with thousands of tiny little dots on it, and with symbols at the bottom that the pen recognizes), they can take notes while the teacher delivers their instruction. Later, they can read their notes and when they tap a particular part of the page, or on a word, the pen will replay the audio that it recorded at that time. These can also be transferred to the computer and manipulated.

We're still relatively early in our piloting of the pens, so I don't have much empirical evidence of their value. That said, teachers are reporting some anecdotal evidence that students who need additional support have been excited and successful with the pen.

-Joel Hames

At my college the students in the advanced ESL classes are expected to make a 5-7 presentation following a specific format. Come presentation day, it used to be a fairly nerve wracking experience for me wondering which student totally did not understand the format and would go totally off in the wrong direction. Now our teachers use either our Can 8 digital language lab or Audacity to have students record the introductions to their presentation following a peer evaluation checklist (which includes elements such as including all required elements, comprehensible pronunciation, volume, and intonation). Once they finish they evaluate themselves and re-record their introduction. Next they have one of the other students in the class evaluate their introduction. Based on their classmates feedback they then re-record their introduction again. Finally, the teacher listens and makes suggestions. Not only do they work with their peers (who can be much more critical than I am) they are forced to practice their introduction OUT LOUD at least 3 times.

LISTEN:Sample Student Recording

- Debbie Plested

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Technology as a 2nd Language

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