Programmed instruction
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[edit] Descriptions, definitions, synonyms, organizer terms, types of
Definition
Programmed instruction is a teaching technique that provides learners with “small, discrete increments of instruction plus immediate reinforcement for correct responses” (Orlich et. al, 2001).
Associated terms
Some professional educators recognize a distinction between programmed instruction and programmed learning, where programmed instruction is defined as instruction intended to modify behavior and programmed learning is defined as insturction intended for use in teaching facts and skills (Programmed instruction [2], 2006). However, most of the educational research reviewed for this posting did not make this distinction.
Today, programmed instructional curricula are generally created for (and taught with) personal computers. A single program may consist of thousands of small units of instuction (also known as frames of instruciton). However, a large variety of teaching machines have been invented to facilitate the process of programmed instruction. Programmed instruction has also been written for and presented in various hard text formats. However, the use of computer technology is generally preferred.
Types of
Programmed instruction can be designed to present information to learners in either a linear or a branched (also called intrinsic) fashion. Linear programs allow students to advance through the instructional process in a particular order as they provide correct answers. Students are provided with specific pieces of information in a series of frames and asked to recall or apply this information during frequent tests of comprehension. In linear programs all students complete the same sequence of frames. If a student provides a correct response they move to the next frame. Linear programs make no accommodation for errors by the student because it is assumed that a student will provide correct responses for nearly every question (Cowder, 1964). Branched programs offer students a variety of paths through a curriculum. For example, if a student misses a multiple choice question they could be directed to previous frame or to whatever information is most appropriate based on their response to the question. What is most important in the execution of both linear and branched programming approaches is that they provide immediate feedback to learners based on their response. According to Leshin, et al. (1992) programmed instruction is most effective when applied using the branching and interactive capabilities of computers.
It should be noted that the linear programming approach and the branched programming approach make different assumptions about the nature of the learning process. Cowder (1964) claims that the two types of programming are so distinctly different that they “have nothing in common historically” (p. 77). Supporters of the linear programming model claim that programs promote learning by inducing and then rewarding students for performing a specific set of desired behaviors (Cowder, 1964). The reinforcement (reward) is the affirmation provided for a correct response. Supporters of the branched programming approach acknowledge that there may not be one best way to learn a particular set of behaviors, facts, or skills. Therefore, the branched programmer believes that it is appropriate to create instructional algorithms with a variety of learning pathways that lead students to perform the desired behavior.
Brief history
It cannot be said with certainty who invented the first teaching machine, or when it was invented (Fry, 1963). However, people in generally agree that “the pioneer in the field [of programmed instruction and teaching machines] was done by Sydney L. Presley at Ohio State University” in the 1920s (Fry, 1963, p. 17). While Presley’s work was certainly important to the field of education, the idea of programmed instruction was not popularized until the 1950s when B.F. Skinner adopted and promoted the method as an appropriate application of behavioral theory in the classroom setting. Some consider Skinner the “father of programmed instruction” (Chen, 2006).
During the 1970s and 1980s, as the first computers were being placed in the classrooms of many schools, behavioral theories became quite popular. Advances in programming and computer technology also spurred the popularity of programmed instruction by making it possible to teach a wide range of topics and skills. During this period programs for nearly every topic covered in a traditional school curriculum (i.e., math, science, language arts, social studies) were written for a variety of teaching machines (which eventually gave way to the personal computer) (Chen, 2006). Programmed instruction is now generally considered to be one appropriate instructional approach among many, and most appropriately utilized in conjunction with a variety of other instructional methods.
[edit] Application in classrooms and similar settings
Programmed instruction has many applications both in the classroom setting and in other settings where the efficient acquisition of behaviors, facts, and skills is a primary concern. For example, programmed instruction is often used to train personnel in industry and the armed services (Programmed instruction [2], 2006).
Teachers play a vital role in effective programmed instruction and should be active in every part of the programming process (Lysaught & Williams,1963 and Calvin 1969). Not only should the teacher monitor student progress on programmed materials, but also assess the effectiveness of all programs, provide individualized tutoring, and motivate students to participate in programmed activities.
According to Chen (2006), programmed instruction is desirable in many instructional settings because it provides the following benefits:
- Immediate knowledge of results- Students continuously answer questions and receive feedback to ensure comprehension.
- Individualized learning- Students can complete programmed instructional activities at their own pace without feeling held back or pushed by other classmates.
- Expert instruction- Students are required to complete a logical sequence of instruction that has been designed by experts.
Eshleman (1999) identified other positive characteristics of programmed instruction which include:
- Emphasis on student behavior- Programmed instruction focuses educators attention on their students’ behavior and views instruction as a task of shaping student behavior.
- Scientific basis for instruction- Programmed instruction is based on the scientific work of behaviorists. It can draw on science as a resource. Teachers can predict (to a certain degree) their students’ performance with appropriately applied programmed instructional materials.
- Increased focus on design and development of instructional materials- Programmed instruction is based on an organized process of creating and implementing instructional materials in which learning objectives are set, instructional materials are responsibly prepared and modified, and student performance is easily monitored.
- Stimulus Control- Programmed instruction prompts information from students under regular and appropriate circumstances.
PLATO and ALEKS are two examples of current instructional resources that are based (broadly) on the idea of programmed instruction. In both programs students complete a predetermined set of curricula. However, PLATO utilizes a linear instructional sequence and ALEKS utilizes a branched instructional sequence. Both programs have a long history of success and both have been proven to be (generally) effective strategies for improving student performance.
[edit] Critics and their rationale
There have been questions regarding the appropriateness of using programmed instruction as the sole method for teaching (Programmed instruction [1], 2006). Educators generally agree that programmed instruction can serve as a valuable supplement to conventional teaching methods, or as a method for teaching highly structured information. Some educators question whether programmed instruction is an effective method for teaching students to deal with real life problems. Also, some researchers have questioned the generalizability of the approach because the most effective programs are written for and applied to specific groups of learners (i.e., similar grade level, background knowledge, and performance level) (Lysaught & Williams, 1963).
Norma Feshbach (1968) suggests that programmed instruction may not always be appropriate because it does not account for individual differences in students that may affect their performance or understanding of programmed instructional materials. Following this argument to its’ logical conclusion, Feshbach (1968) claims that programmed instruction may be more appropriate for a specific group of students in a specific context, and not beneficial for general learning audiences.
Eshleman (1999) identified the following critiques of programmed instruction:
- Cost- Developing instructional materials can be expensive and time consuming. Also, students need to have access to appropriate materials and technologies.
- Lack of repetition- Programmed instruction provides students with limited exposure to new material. Frequently a learner is exposed to new material only once. Also, programmed instruction tends to have a static sequence which is not appropriate for all learning contexts. Also, students learning may be interfered with because of repeated exposure to similar problem types or sequence of problem types (i.e., serial learning).
- Ignoring frequency of behavior- Most behaviors are measured based on accuracy (i.e., percent correct) and not on the repeated occurrence of a behavior when presented with a similar problem.
- Failure to shape behavior- It is unclear if programmed instruction is successful in reinforcing successive approximations of a target behavior.
- Branched programming instruction is complex- It is not possible for even the most advanced computer technologies to maintain a true branching structure (i.e., accounting for all possible outcomes) for extended learning activities.
- Lack of diversity of methods for presentation of and response to new material- Programmed instruction frequently requires students to read a fact and then write an answer. It may be more effective to employ a broader range of stimuli and evoke a broader range of responses from students in order to insure that they are learning efficiently.
[edit] Signed "life experiences", testimonies and stories
[edit] References and other links of interest
Calvin, A. (1969). Programmed instruction: Bold new venture. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.
Chen, I. (2006). An electronic textbook on instructional technology. Retrieved 17:00, July 4, 2006 from http://viking.coe.uh.edu/~ichen/ebook/et-it/cover.htm.
Cowder, N. A. (1964). On the difference between linear and intrinsic programing. In A. G. Grazia, & D. A. Sohn (Eds.), Programs, teachers, and machines (pp. 77-85). New York, NY: Bantam Books.
Eshleman, J. W., (1999). Pluses and minuses of programmed instruction. Retrieved 16:30, July 4, 2006, from http://members.aol.com/johneshleman/comment05.html.
Feshbech, N. (1968). Manual of individual difference variables and measures. Retrieved 17:30, July 4, 2006, from http://www.cse.ucla.edu/CRESST/Reports/TECH2.PDF.
Fry, E.B. (1963). Teaching machines and programmed instruction. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Leshin, C., Pollock, J., Reigeluth, C. (1992). Instructional design strategies and tactics. New Jersey: Educational Technology Publications.
Lysaught, J. & Williams, C. (1963). A guide to programmed instruction. New York, NY: James Wiley and Sons.
Orlich, D. C., Harder, R. J., Callahan, R. C., & Gibson, H. W. (2001). Teaching Strategies: A guide to better instruction. New York, NY: Houghton Mifflin Company.
[1] Programmed Instruction (2006) The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed. New York: Columbia University Press, 2001–04. Retrieved 18:00, July 4, 2006 from http://www.bartleby.com/65/.
[2] Programmed Instruction (2006). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 22:30, July 4, 2006, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmed_instruction.
Here is a link to the wikipedia site: Programmed Instruction
