Multiliteracies and Education

From WikEd

Note: This wiki is for use by students in EPS 415 for the development of a collaborative site on the topic of Multiliteracies. If you are not a member of the project team, please do not edit this page. We will post it as a public wiki once the project team has finalized their version.

Wiki Development Information

Authors

Jack Adwell

Naomi Copeland

Anjali Forber-Pratt

Kevin Gitonga

Ken Kleber

Chuck Koplinski

Molly Jo Lawhead

Ryan Martin

Reese Mattison

Kara Wilken

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

EPS 415 - Ethical & Policy Issues in Information Technologies - Summer 2007

Professor Nicholas C. Burbules

Introduction to Multiliteracies

In a time in which most facets of society (personal, educational, business, and recreational) are increasingly technological, the way in which traditional schooling and forms of literacy are approached is slowly evolving as well. This website will focus on multiliteracy in three different ways: the cultural and social changes encouraged by the emergence of multiliteracies in schools and society; the ways in which new digital technologies have affected and contribute to these cultural and social changes; and, most importantly, the educational opportunities and challenges presented by multiliteracies.

In order to fully understand the true effects of the notion of multiliteracies, it is necessary to expand on the original idea of literacy. Definitions of "literacy" vary, from the basic “the ability to communicate using written text” (Gentle, et al, 2005) to the more comprehensive definition from UNESCO that “[l]iteracy is the ability to identify, understand, interpret, create, communicate and compute, using printed and written materials associated with varying contexts" (Literacy, 2007). However, in a society saturated with computers, phones, videos, PDAs, and other gadgets, simply being able to read and write are not enough to enable one to participate fully in the increasingly technological and globalized world. These changes have resulted in a shift toward multiliteracies, which focus on issues larger than print text and basic language. The New London Group (1996) chose the word multiliteracies “to describe two important arguments we might have with the emerging cultural, institutional, and global order: the multiplicity of communications channels and media, and the increasing saliency of cultural and linguistic diversity.” Multiliteracy is a schema in which understanding all types of texts and textual connections--audio, visual, print, etc.--are types of literacy and necessary for communication and participation in a global world. The multiliteracy approach focuses on an education that is multimodal, meaning that it incorporates aspects of design that are linguistic, visual, audio, spatial, and gestural (Gentle, et al, 2005).

Certainly the impacts of multiliteracy are evident in everyday life, and these impacts are evident in many cultural standards and practices. The availability of new forms of technology, and the education that comes along with these, is an issue in and of itself. Modern students are exposed to more types of technology than ever before, but not all students have equal access in their personal lives. There are also the political, social, and economic divides in terms of technology, and these are all impacted by the emergence of a multiliteracy framework. Another change in standards is that of status; namely, that in order to achieve status and success in a professional setting, one must be multiliterate. In this way, multiliteracies have a profound effect on one’s status. Another significant change is an increased multicultural awareness across many sectors of society. Through technology, students, teachers, politicians, and businesses have more access to other cultures than ever before. This growing awareness of diversity is crucial in a world that is increasingly globalized. Additionally, because of the changes in mainstream institutions, such as banks, libraries, and businesses, multiliteracies have affected standard practices in education since the basic skill sets students needs to survive in the real world have changed.

Advances in technology and the development of a multiliteracy framework have had and will continue to have profound impacts throughout society, specifically in the field of education. Increased cultural and linguistic awareness, seemingly limitless knowledge at students’ fingertips, increased student empowerment, a multitude of new uses for technology in the classroom and at home, and an ability to reach students in various subgroups (bilingual, special needs, etc.) in a plethora of new ways are some of the few that will be highlighted. Conversely, there are also challenges, such as the paradox and implications of English as the dominant Internet language, the difficulty of re-educating and training teachers on new methods and technology, the strain of attempting to learn and teach such a large number of literacy elements, and the need to teach and learn a critical reflection about knowledge gained through a multiliteracy framework.

Types of Literacy

Overview

Being literate is to understand a particular subject with the capability of communicating within that subject. "Literacy is about the fluent use of a language" (Virtual Music, 1994). Today, however, not only is the concept of 'literacy' changing to 'multiliteracies', the definition of 'language' is morphing into 'metalanguage' and incorporating various means of communication under many different contexts and in a variety of arenas. Thus, in the discussions on multiliteracies, a new language discourse is being used to define emerging terms and concepts. Presently, we have more means than ever with which to communicate and must constantly choose the most appropriate mode of communication for situations we encounter. "At the heart of multiliteracies is the understanding that language is polymorphous, that is, language has a multiplicity of purposes and the repertoires of linguistic resources available to different cultures also varies" (Mills, 2005, p. 15). Additionally, contemporary 'texts' have become multimodal, synergizing the visual with the aural and offering a multi-sensory learning experience. A new necessity for a metalanguage has emerged, that is "a language for talking about language, images, texts, and meaning-making interactions." Thus, the New London Group has set out to develop an educationally accessible functional grammar, "a metalanguage that describes meaning in various realms. These include the textual and the visual, as well as the multimodal relations between the different meaning-making processes that are now so critical in media texts and the texts of electronic multimedia." (New London Group, 1996). What this means is that our new metalanguage needs to be flexible and open-ended. "It should be seen as a tool kit for working on semiotic activities, not a formalism to be applied to them" (New London Group, 1996).

The current multiliteracies acknowledge the variations in students’ strengths and weaknesses. It can be noted that this is similar to Howard Gardner’s proposal of Multiple Intelligences. In 1983, Gardner offered eight intelligences students possess:

Interpersonal – reacting with and sensitivity to others
Linguistic – ability with words and language
Logical/Mathematical – deductive reasoning
Naturalistic – nature
Intrapersonal – self-reflective capacities
Spatial – visual and spatial judgment
Musical – musical and rhythmic intelligences, perfect/relative pitch
Body-kinesthetic – use of physical body to solve problems and understand (Smith, 2002)

Being aware of our intelligences and being learned in the various literacies allows for a broader range of human understanding and potential. Today’s multiliteracies incorporate concepts like Gardner’s multiple intelligences, and like them, the literacies within our discussion of multiliteracies do not stand independent of each other. They overlap and have indistinct, amorphous edges. Teachers and learners should be able to pick and choose from a variety of means and, more importantly, should feel free to fashion their own tools and modes of understanding. "Flexibility is critical because the relationship between descriptive and analytical categories and actual events is, by its nature, shifting, provisional, unsure, and relative to the contexts and purposes of analysis" (New London Group, 1996). The list that follows offers some working definitions and a broader understanding of the concepts within multiliteracy. Although they are expressed individually, keep in mind that in actuality, they work together as notes in the modern, multicultural melody of multiliteracies.

Linguistic

Key characteristics of linguistic literacy as defined by the New London Group (1996) are delivery, vocabulary and metaphor, modality, transitivity, nominalization, information structures, local coherence, and global coherence. Delivery features the actual vocal mannerism of speech including intonation, stress, rhythm, accent, etc. Vocabulary and Metaphor focus on symbolism of language including collocation, lexicalization, and word meaning. The nature of the producer's commitment to the message in a clause is Modality. Transitivity is the type of processes and participants in the clause, the utilization of vocabulary and metaphor, word choice, positioning, and meaning. Nominalization of Processes equals the links, assessments, or logical connection across nouns or states of being (e.g., "assess" becomes "assessment;" "can" becomes ability). Information Structures is how information is presented in clauses and sentences. Local Coherence is cohesion between clauses, and logical relations between clauses (e.g. embedding, subordination). Global Coherence is the overall organizational properties of texts.

One of the revolutionary aspects of multiliteracies is the idea that written and spoken languages are no longer bound by rules and grammars. Effective communication is the focus, not proper usage. We now face hybridization and intertextuality, or cross referencing in language. Words, sounds, meanings, etc. are in a constant state of morphing depending on the producer’s platform (face-to-face vs. internet messenger), culture, first language, age, and identity (full, proper name vs. screen name and avatar). Therefore, there is a tremendous need to hone an ability to view language from various perspectives.

Part of the momentum behind this movement is the fact that we have so many new settings for linguistic discourse. The Internet alone raises numerous examples of extensions in this realm: chat rooms, email, instant messengers, blogs, wikis, forums, etc. require a new precision and clarity; "it becomes an ethical imperative not to contribute to cultural and information noise and overload, and to concisely communicate thoughts and feelings" (Kellner, 2004, p. 17). This is just the tip of the iceberg. The following discussion on technological and media literacies will address linguistic literacies specifically pertinent to those realms, such as the ability to navigate filters, searches, passwords, etc.

Artistic/Visual

Artistic/Visual Literacy is the ability to interpret, use, and create images for communication with others. It includes the use of iconic representation. Its name was first coined by John Debes in 1969 but its uses can be dated back to Cro-Magnon cave drawings (On-line Visual Literacy Project, 1998; International Visual Literacy Association, n.d.). Humans are visual creatures by and large, and always have been. However, there is an unmistakable increase in the use of visual material in contemporary society--in print media, advertisements, film, television, and computer use specifically the Internet. Whereas words alone are relatively vague, foggy and inexact in their intended meanings, images, in contrast, are full, yet simple in transmitting their meaning (Kress, 2004). Basically, they are more cognitively digestible than words. For these reasons, images are increasingly being used to communicate across linguistic barriers. There are few places in the world where people do not recognize the yellow "M" of McDonald’s, the Nike swoosh, the Red Cross’s red cross, or any number of national flags, for example.

We should also remember that "all written text is also visually designed" (New London Group, 1996) and thus, the visual appearance of texts is an important aspect of interpretation. The size of certain words and their spatial organization in relation to others impacts our understanding of the message being sent. Meaning expressed through the use of colors and fonts should be examined. In addition, there is an ever-increasing use of new visual communication forms or symbols to comprehend, such as icons, emoticons, logos, and shorthand.

Current technological media in visual literacy foster advanced thinking, learning, and communication. For example, common digital devices such as cameras, phones, and computers increase the use of visual imagery and have helped students increase their skills in many subjects, especially math and science. These digital devices can be used for detecting patterns, time sequencing, three-dimensional rotations, graphic representations of complex correlations, and to bolster concepts of dimensions, motion, direction, and shape (North Central, 21st, n.d.). Additional modern uses of visual literacy in the classroom have been presentations, the use of smart boards, graphic design, and animation with programs such as Photoshop. Artistic/Visual Literacy in the Digital Era involves graphic designing, electronic portfolios, animation, and computer renderings for design such as the program Solid Edge (Stankiewicz, 2003).

Musical

Musical Literacy is a form of communication that requires a different subset of notation, logic, and syntax. (It should be noted that there is a difference between being musically literate and just listening to music.) Many, such as music philosopher Bennet Reimer, have argued that this form of literacy is irrelevant in our current society due to the lack of experts teaching and using the actual 'language' or notation (Reimer, 2002). For example, a preschool music teacher does not ask the students to write down standard music notation in class; rather, s/he asks them to sing along or clap to the beat. Music is an abstract representation of sound, yet at the same time comes very natural to children (Virtual, 1994). Studies have also addressed the benefits of musical literacy and its positive effects on academic achievement including language-writing skills. There is also an important social context found among music learning and literacy in the classroom (McCusker, 1990). In today's modern classroom, students may work on their Musical Literacy while composing on notation software such as Finale, Sibelius or GarageBand. This requires a competence in basic computer skills but provides access to the vocabulary (notation) of the language that was not available to students in Reimer's early days.

Technological

Technological Literacy is the ability to use computers and other technologies to enhance learning, productivity, and performance (North Central, Technology, n.d.). In today's world, there is an obvious need to be able to use computers, software and other digital and mechanical devices ubiquitous in society. In addition to the obvious, however, are a multitude of other areas people need to understand and use effectively. Not only do we need a command of the basic functions of computers such as word processing, spreadsheets, presentation software, emailing, and accessing the Internet, we must navigate hypertext, web pages, recognize HTML and other computer languages, understand the myriad of available websites, conduct searches, make phone calls using VOIP (Voice Over IP), use cameras, send messages in multiple ways, recognize dangers to our privacy and our computer’s health, interpret the accuracy of sources, as well as coordinate the linguistic with the visual and physical realms. The list is nearly endless; however, this use of technology gives us the freedom to explore the various ways of problem solving, discovery, and collaboration.

As we transfer traditional literacy skills, such as reading and writing, to the computer, technological literacy melds cognitive, visual, aural and physical processes. Using computers may be commonplace these days, but their use necessitates new literacies we take for granted. In what may seem to be the most basic computer-driven task, word processing, writers can switch between paragraphs, easily deleting and modifying the text in a non-linear rather than sequential way as is typical in pen and paper form (Mills, 2005). Thus, the move from paper to computer screen in writing impacts the very manner in which we process information. Similarly, reading and the organization of information is transformed as well. Consider the entry point for reading and the reader’s path. Traditionally, the starting point in Western written texts is at the top left of a page. This has changed in many contemporary settings. On any given web page, for example, the "entry point" could be located in a large number of places. Reader interest determines the starting point and reading path (Kress, 2004). The direction the user chooses to go next will often be determined through their use of hypertext. Hypertext, which basically refers to text that will lead the user to other, related information on demand, represents a relatively recent innovation in user interfaces that overcomes many limitations of written text. For example, instead of being static like traditional text, hypertext enables a dynamic organization of information through links and connections (hyperlinks). A number tasks are performed by this specialized text; when a user clicks on it or hovers over it, often there is an identifiable sound message, a bubble with the definition of a word may appear, a song may play, one could be redirected to a web page on a related subject, a video clip may run, an application may open, or outside web elements may be downloaded to a personal computer (Hypertext, 2007). Considering all of this, "visuality is obviously crucial, compelling users to perceptively scrutinize visual fields, perceive and interact with icons and graphics, and use technological devices like a mouse to access the desired material and field" (Kellner, 2004, p. 22). Thus, a variety of intelligences, skills, processes, and critical analyses may be used subconsciously with the click of a mouse.

Since the recognition of the importance of this Literacy, the U.S. Department of Education has worked on developing new state standards in education for Technology Literacy for both teachers and students that should be incorporated in the curricula (International Society, 2005). The many uses for today’s classroom include Internet research, blogs, streaming videos, and programs such as QUIA and SWIS (School-Wide Information System) for homework practice and even test-taking. Although Technological Literacy is a necessary form of communication for students, many universities and their graduating teachers have not had appropriate training to include this literacy in their curriculum. Due to the advanced growth of the Digital Era, organizations such as the Illinois Technology Conference for Educators (IL-TCE) have developed to help educators in achieving their own Technological Literacy.

Media

We are constantly being influenced consciously and unconsciously by a plethora of multimedia: television, radio, popular music and videos, commercials and advertisements, film, games, magazines, newspapers, etc. Most important to note though is that the Internet is absorbing all of these “cultural forms,” creating a new platform for socialization. Thus, yet another literacy has developed, media literacy. Media literacy is the ability to navigate these media while being able to detect persuasion, quality of source, voice, propaganda, censorship and bias, to name a few influences. Its root is to create knowledgeable consumers and creators of media messages who actively process, interpret and create these messages.

Media can assist our understanding of our multicultural society and the global community, and sensitize us to injustices and inequalities based on race, gender, and class. It is important to recognize “the role of mainstream media in exacerbating or diminishing these inequalities” (Kellner, 2004, p. 17). This implies that “information literacy” is necessary to learn “where information can be found, how to produce knowledge and understanding, and how to critically evaluate and interpret information sources and material” (Kellner, 2004, p. 21). Indeed, a whole new arena has been erected on the Internet, and as such, a whole new literacy is necessary to navigate it. We need to consider the scope of the material, its intended audience, its purpose, the background of the author, the objectivity or lack thereof, overall quality and reliability as well as its accessibility, design, and usability.

Of the utmost importance to this discussion is our role in the manipulation of media. In his explanation of the shift from ‘Web 1.0’ to ‘Web 2.0’ on software, O’Reilly (2005) declared that “users must be treated as co-developers” (p. 4). This is a truly huge transformation in literacy. Now more than ever, all of us connected to the Internet play an active role in the organization of information and the harnessing of collective intelligence. We now have the power to control knowledge; it is no longer in the hands of a select few. As David Weinberger discussed in a 2004 lecture at the Library of Congress, we need to recognize and understand the differences in the real world versus the digital realm of information organization. As users, we can now manipulate the organization of information, which is virtually impossible to do in real life. There is, in fact, a new authority of knowledge in the new realm of media (National Cable Satellite Corporation, 2007).

Education, therefore, also has a new role in developing the ability to critically evaluate media, so individuals can discern fact from opinion, truth from fiction, and subjective from objective (Kellner, 2004). There is now a need to prepare for the increase of emergent text forms associated with information and multimedia technologies, which draw upon these multiple modes of communication (Kalantzis et al, 2002). There are almost innumerable activities in which we now have to interpret, integrate, and effectively communicate, including the ability to critique advertising, debate orally, use a variety of machines (fax, photocopiers, voice-mail), write memos, use directories (hard copies and on-line), read itineraries and maps, process internet transactions, use SMS (text) messaging, email, work with digital photography, understand dramatic and vocal performances, body language, and many other culturally and linguistically diverse textual practices for a multiplicity of cultural purposes (Mills, 2005). Educators have to prepare students to not only be citizens of their respective countries, but also of the global community and as ‘netizens’ and participants in all sorts of communities whether they are mental, emotional, physical, virtual, or, most likely, a combination of realms. The responsibility of educators is rapidly expanding and thus, education itself will have to undergo tremendous change.

Multicultural/Global

Multicultural or Global Literacy involves the ability to appreciate and interact with people of other cultures and backgrounds while making attempts to create a global connectedness. It requires much of the education system to provide reform and rethinking in our schools for new outlets and resources for this type of learning and literacy. Areas to be covered within the diversity of nations are cultures, religions, languages, and core beliefs. Currently, many universities are making attempts to internationalize their curricula. There are distance learning and web-based courses such as the University of British Columbia’s Architecture course which collaborates with individuals in Hong Kong, Japan, Sweden, and Germany to design buildings in Tokyo (Aboulnasr, 2002) and the University of Illinois’s School of Music which hosts events such as the Burgos Chamber Music Festival in Spain, involving students and faculty from both countries (School of Music, 2007). Industry has also taken part in efforts to become multiculturally and globally literate with organizations such as Engineers Without Borders, Doctors Without Borders, and the Peace Corps.

Educational Concerns and Challenges Surrounding These Definitions

A primary concern in the enactment of a multiliteracies pedagogy is that much of the multiliteracies discourse surrounds the use of the Internet, and much of the Internet is written in English; we have to address the paradox presented by this language. First, since English has quickly become the acting global language, the cost has been a tremendous decrease in linguistic diversity. Second to this, however, is the fact that “English is fractioning into multiple Englishes” (Cope & Kalantzis, 1999). Now, even the single language chosen to act as global transmission mechanism has sectioned itself in an uncompromising rebellion against the initial act of unification.

In addition, if “the lexicon of every language carries within it the culture’s theory about the nature of the world” (Cole, 1990, p. 106) and English is to act as the global language, isn’t the whole multiliteracies discourse an act of cultural imperialism by definition of language in its purest sense? There is still a tremendous cultural divide as far as technology goes, so that the academics working so hard to be far and multiculturally aware, are still acting out of their own cultural constructs marketing ‘democracy’ and the well-being for all. How do they know what this is? This can lead us to many more questions about the transient nature of the new authority of knowledge. The majority is likely to decide how linguistic, visual, technological, media, and other literacies will be devised. How is this different from the majority rule from the past?

In addition to these intangible concepts, we have to be aware of the logistical concern revolving around these new literacies. We are rapidly moving away from the industrial, homogeneous, nationalistic approaches of print literacy toward the digital, heterogeneous, constantly-shifting, globalized, networked, virtual approaches of the multiliteracies introduced above, and our educators and the educational system are ill-prepared. Simply put, if adults (educators) are less knowledgeable and more hesitant to accept the shift to the virtual/digital/technological realm than are students, how can they be expected to lead the way? A significant amount of education must be set forth to re-educate educators.

American schools have to change as well. Classroom uses of media are continually developing. Resources such as scholar.google.com and askforkids.com are becoming available to students, yet a standardized form of teaching media literacy has not been developed. Until now, it has been in the hands of individual educators and parents to engage students in the appropriate use of the Internet. However, standards for teachers and students have recently been developed by the National Education Technology Standards Project in the hope of encouraging this literacy within our schools (International Society, 2005). Education in Media Literacy is most relevant and necessary for our students and their Internet safety. As Peter DeBenedittis, PhD from the organization Media Literacy for Prevention, Critical Thinking, and Self-Esteem said, "I see media and entertainment that expresses, enriches, and enhances, rather than teaches compulsive debt, substance abuse, violence and risky behavior because there is profit in it. I see a world where everyday people have the power to shape their culture because they have access to the information and communication venues upon which democracy depends" (DeBenedittis, 2007). Thus, media education and the production of alternative media forms can be engaged to promote healthy multicultural perspectives and an acceptance for differences (Kellner, 2004). However, then the question should be asked, do we need to hone an ability to recognize people of various ethnicities or should we put an effort forth to desensitize ourselves to such current distinctions?

Critical Literacies

Critical literacy is a complicated process that, as defined by Alice S. Horning (1999), involves "the psycholinguistic processes of getting meaning from print and/or sound, images, and movement, on a page or screen, and putting meaning into [these when] used for the purposes of analysis, synthesis and evaluation" (p. 135-6). Today, literacy is not simply the ability to read words but to decode information of all sorts and combinations. While this definition is current regarding the forms of information being read, it remains narrow and lacks context. It is true that critical literacy does involve interpreting and decoding but it also takes into account that the reader should be able to put what they are reading into context and understand what the author’s purpose is for writing. As one might expect, critical literacy is a practice that consists of various properties and can be approached in a variety of ways. There are three accepted types of critical literacy, each of which relate directly to the other. While these three forms can stand independently, as far as their usage is concerned, a better understanding of a text can be garnered if they are employed together. These three forms of understanding are recognition literacy, reproduction literacy and reflection literacy.

Recognition Literacy

Recognition literacy is concerned with "learning to recognize and produce the verbal, visual and electronic codes that are used to construct and communicate meanings" (Unsworth, 2001, p. 14). In a sense, this is the most basic form of literacy as it employs the rudimentary interpretive skills that are at the core of reading. This form of literacy also encompasses allusions to other commonly held precepts, history or practices within the given society in which it was written.

Reproduction Literacy

Reproduction literacy is the "understanding and producing of the conventional visual and verbal text forms that construct and communicate the established systematic knowledge of cultural institutions" (Unsworth, 2001, p. 15). This form is a reflection of the sort of communication that follows established rules and conventions. There is a strict adherence to rules and grammatical (whatever the grammar may be) conventions when this form of literacy is in use and it would not be wrong to refer to it as a sort of mimicry.

Reflection Literacy

Reflection literacy is "an understanding that all social practices, and hence all literacies, are socially constructed" (Unsworth, 2001, p. 15). As one might expect from the name of this skill, this form of literacy has to do with being able to determine what an author’s intent and purpose is after reading their work.

Implications for Education and Educators

Having acknowledged these three separate forms of understanding, it must be taken into account that today’s children must learn to be proficient in each of these areas in order not only to be well-rounded students, but to function in society in such a way that they are aware of how information is processed and received as well as being able to measure its impact. Teaching these three forms of literacy is not without its difficulties; however, it is imperative that these be addressed early in a child’s education and reiterated often so these skills become second nature for the student in question. The opportunities to deliver this sort of education are many as are the fields they open up for those who learn them. However, there are pitfalls and concerns that must be addressed along the way as well.

Preparing students for this brave new world of language is quite different than past incarnations of traditional literacy. Whereas it was once considered sufficient to be to read, write, and do basic mathematics, today’s literacy needs have a far greater scope that is continuously expanding. Not only do children today need to be able to read, write, and understand words and numbers, but they also must comprehend visual and digital communication formats. Equally challenging is the area of modern reflection literacy. With the advent of the international news and entertainment media as well as the spread of the World Wide Web and the information and misinformation it contains, it has been increasingly difficult to not only interpret what the author’s intention is behind the communication they’ve authored but also to confirm the veracity of it.

To this end, teachers must be open to new, multi-pronged approaches towards preparing their students for 21st-Century literacy. There are many ways to instill these skills into students, yet it seems most pragmatic to take the most basic approach at the start. To this end, it should be noted that there are three basic strategies upon which to build these skills. They are teaching multiple literacies, continuous inquiry, and reflection (Goodman, 2004). Teaching multiple literacies is the first step towards students learning a metalanguage that will facilitate critical literacy. "Students learn to analyze, evaluate, and produce texts across oral/aural, visual and alphabetic/textual modes of language" (Goodman, 2004, p. 208) when mastering skills they will employ in this area. In addition to words, students should be able to use all types of numeric, digital, and visual formats in writing while interpreting texts with equal fluency.

Continuous inquiry is motivated by the students themselves as they are encouraged to let their own curiosity lead them in their quest for knowledge. "The learner-centeredness of this approach develops the students’ agency as social, political and cultural activities in their community" (Goodman, 2004, p. 210). In a sense, this approach generates a degree of educational activism in the student that provides for them a degree of ownership in their work while bolstering their self-esteem.

Reflection is perhaps the most difficult of these three to teach and develop student understanding as it requires reflection over a vast number of issues and assignments and requires the student to make connections with their work and abilities that might not be readily apparent. This is a logical extension of the continuous inquiry step as it asks the student to pose questions about themselves and the products they’ve produced, instead of outside sources. The hope is that students will be able to transition these skills over to looking at text in the real world and making connections as to their viability and purpose.

Social and Cultural Changes as a Result of the Evolution of Multiliteracies

Overview

The growth of multicultural societies (those exhibiting cultural and linguistic diversity) today has introduced significant social and cultural changes in our public, private and working lives (Lukács, n.d.). According to Lukács (n.d.), the development of new communication technologies such as the Internet, mobile, and ICT are transforming our cultures and the ways we communicate. Technology is being used to define what literacy is; being literate in today's society no longer means simply possessing oral and written linguistic skills or static-image models of meaning but also includes competencies in audiovisual and spatial patterns of meaning.

Empowerment of Learners - The notion of withholding knowledge as a sign of power is slowly being eroded.
Evolution of a Work Language - English has evolved as an international work language with minor disparities due to accents.
Evolution of International Communities - People of like thinking are able to connect despite proximity differences. This has encouraged cultural diversity.
Increased Dependence on Electronic Media - People are more dependent on these media to obtain information.
Increased Challenges for Education and Educators - New challenges have arisen as a result of the multiliteracy movement.
- It is becoming increasingly difficult to critically interpret the various sources of information, expression, or personal identity because of their breadth.
- Education now must compete with the information industry when supplying information.
- It is becoming a challenge to maintain a knowledgeable staff dedicated to learning about multiliteracies.
- It is difficult for districts financially to keep up with the latest trends in technology.
Increased Danger from Market Forces - Multiliteracies could be captured and exploited by profit-driven entities.

Empowerment of Learners

This is one of the cultural and social changes that has resulted from a new emphasis on multiliteracies. Traditionally, schools were seen as places where teachers (experts) filled the minds of children (vessels). Because of this arrangement, students were placed in a subversive position. However, age alone was not the only barrier in the quest to gain knowledge. In fact, as Leonard Shlain points out, literacy has "promoted the subjugation of women by men through all but the very recent history of the West" (Shlain, 1998, p.3). Now, as democracy and equality have gained hold among members of different minority and ethnic groups, rates of literacy are higher than ever before, and new types of literacy never seen before have become commonplace. Part of this is rooted in a different approach to teaching and education as new and different types of literacy have emerged. Due to multiliteracies, the roles of teachers and students have drastically changed. Instead of being passive observers, students are more interactive. Instead of being the experts, teachers have become more like guides. Instead of an entire focus on overt instruction, now there is an emphasis on a blend of pedagogical strategies.

The New London Group (1996) has outlined a blend of four different pedagogical methods that increase multiliteracy; all of these methods of educating place more emphasis on the student than the teacher, thus promoting the notion that withholding knowledge as a sign of power is slowly eroding. The four methods that create a solid pedagogy designed to focus on multiliteracy are: Situated Practice, Overt Instruction, Critical Framing, and Transformed Practice. Situated Practice is a framework in which “teachers guide a community of learners as ‘masters’ of practice” (New London, 1996). While experts (often teachers) are present in Situated Practice, they function more as guides than withholders of knowledge. Overt Instruction, for many years the basis of the practice of an empowered instructor passing on knowledge to a worthy recipient, is often misconceived as the mundane chores associated with schools--memorization, worksheets, question and answer, etc. However, Overt Instruction is actually more about a teacher using the knowledge already inherent in the learner and providing a basis for adding new information to the old. Critical Framing, in which the teachers help the students clarify and make sense of what they have learned, and Transformed Practice, in which “teachers need to develop ways in which the students can demonstrate how they can design and carry out, in a reflective manner, new practices embedded in their own goals and values” (New London, 1996) both also highlight the shift away from knowledge as a sign of power to the empowerment of learners (rather than the subjugation of learners). The empowerment of learners has helped and will continue to help create a societies in which there are more universal and complete understandings of their rules and procedures, which creates a larger pool of wealth to continue to educate future generations.

One challenge that arises from the empowerment of learners is that education is becoming a more democratic process. Students are now sometimes on an equal level with teachers or students in grades above them. In fact, because of the age gap, many times students have more familiarity with and knowledge about technology than their teachers or parents. Likewise, many students enter school with a broader set of skills than prior to the advent of major technology. Today’s incoming kindergartners have often been visually stimulated since birth--through videos like Baby Einstein, games, and electronics. The difficulty for teachers arises in trying to make sure students are literate in ALL capacities, including the traditional print text forms, when most students prefer and are more readily exposed to other forms of literacy. Creating a balanced and well-rounded notion of literacy is difficult, especially when the students are more and more empowered in educational settings.

However, while the empowerment of learners in some ways does make schooling more democratic, there is also the notion of the digital divide that threatens to increase the already prevalent gap in education between various socioeconomic and ethnic groups. Schools that struggle with funding will not be able to meet the technological demands providing a multiliteracy framework demands. Students who do not have access to technology or who have a limited exposure to multiliteracies in their private lives will struggle to grasp onto a notion of multiliteracy that for them may hold very little value. Schools whose teachers are not trained in providing multiliteracy education will continue to fall behind. Consequently, the empowerment of learners can be simultaneously democratic and inherently unequal.

The dangers in empowering learners and making education a more democratic process are twofold. First, because students and teachers are on more of an equal level and students may have more background knowledge and confidence than their instructors, they may not value the input of their teachers when it comes to critically reflecting on knowledge. Because a teacher purposely values and teaches from the students’ background knowledge, students may lack the ability to make valid determinations about the credibility of information with which they are working. Education, at least at the K-12 level, has historically been a setting of an authority figure transmitting to a lesser figure; with the focus on student-centered learning, the very framework of the educational system is challenged. Secondly, democratization could lead to an oversaturated population of “experts.” In the past one had to undertake a long and laborious process in order to have one’s work published or read by others. Now, almost anyone can create something, post it online, and be read (and even cited) by someone else. Students have limitless information at hand, but they may not have the capability to decide what constitutes “real” information, and what is false or absurd. Teachers and all adults, for that matter, have the same challenge. Is a dissertation from a student at Oxford worth as much as a free essay from freepapers.com? Democratization through the empowerment of learners may become a slippery slope from which we cannot climb back up after sliding down.

Evolution of a Work Language

While the empowerment of learners is one cultural and social effect of multiliteracies on society, another effect is the evolution of a work language. Humans of every age, nationality and ethnicity are using Information Communication Technologies (ICTs) at an increasing rate for matters private, business-oriented, educational, and recreational. Furthermore, according to Gentle, et al (2005), as a result of this increased use and multiliteracy, English is rapidly becoming a global language, "increasingly differentiated by accent, national origin, subcultural style and professional and technical communities" (State of Victoria, 2004). The emergence of a common work language and view of multiliteracies can be seen as both a negative and positive occurrence. Providing consistency and commonality allows people from a variety of backgrounds and nationalities to communicate in a common forum. There becomes a standardized prerequisite that everyone wishing to be multiliterate must accomplish. However, Burbules et al (2006) point out the inherent danger in having a common language of globalization: the marginalization of non-English speakers, and perhaps even a sense of Western superiority. While multiliterate users of ICTs are engaging in productive discourse and business, other non-English speakers who may be literate, and to an extent multiliterate, are left out of the fold. It becomes the task of the teachers to teach multiliteracies, but also to not lose sight of the native languages of non-English speakers. Although there are certainly inherent issues with creating a standardized work language, it benefits a global society in which users and future users are aware of the work language, and can prepare themselves fully and adequately to engage in a globalized world. There is an elimination of the loss of productivity due to too many languages and people competing for the same space.

The evolution of a work language is one of the greatest paradoxes of the push for multiliteracy. The New London Group (1996) points to the increased awareness and cultural diversity generated by a multiliterate and multimodal approach; while this is true in some instances, the dependence on English as the international work language contradicts the idea of cultural diversity.

Evolution of International Communities

Along with the evolution of a common work language, another effect of multiliteracies is the evolution of international communities. Certainly the evolution of a common work language helps create and foster international communities, but often even without English speakers there are international communities in which people from all areas of the Earth are able to communicate and exchange ideas. There are ways of translating and other methods for international communication at levels never duplicated before, allowing people of like minds to transfer ideas without dealing with proximity issues. Students in classrooms are able to be pen pals with students from across the world and can even track the migration of butterflies from one country to another. Businesses can conduct overseas teleconferences and meetings without leaving the office, while universities can conduct classes in which students can participate from across the globe. The evolution of multiliteracies has had a profound effect on the way in which business, learning, and recreation take place, and part of this stems from the fact that because proximity is no longer an obstacle, people are able to learn in more ways than ever before.

One of the dangers of international or global communities is the loss of personal relationships and physical human interaction. It may (if it is not already) be possible for a college student to complete his or her entire college education via computer and not step foot in a classroom, nor meet with another classmate, teacher, or adviser in person. It may be possible for a business in Australia to conduct meetings and transactions with its partner in Korea via computer only, never once traveling or meeting in person. Is the experience in both of these examples better than, worse than, or equal to the experiences that would have occurred had there been physical proximity? Patterns of socializing and conduct are changing now that there is less need to be in the same room to work or socialize with someone else.

Increased Dependence on Electronic Media

Electronic media, especially Information Communication Technologies (ICTs), plays a critical role in the evolution of multiliteracies. Interaction between peoples of different cultures and languages has been facilitated by the improved communication channels, especially via the Internet. An example of such reliance is through the increased use of virtual communities as informal learning channels. Informal learning through virtual communities is self-driven learning whereby the learner is motivated by his/her own interests to acquire knowledge mainly through the internet (Andreatos, 2006). Andreatos argues that the Internet is significantly responsible for the distribution of information and knowledge. It is changing the way people get informed, interact, and communicate. He celebrates the Internet as the only medium that instantaneously follows today’s social evolutions by driving the evolution. Knowledge and information is constantly being exchanged through blogs, bots, wikis and podcasts, making these the most current sources of information. In May 2005, BusinessWeek described blogs as the "most explosive outbreak in the information world since the internet itself and they’re out to shake up just about every business—including yours" (Blogs, 2005). Business Blogging Consultants estimated that as of Spring 2007, there were about 70 million blogs and the numbers was growing daily by about 120,000 per day! It is estimated that 25%-35% of Americans read blogs covering all sorts of topics (Sorles, 2007).

Increased Challenge to Education

Today the increased use of virtual communities or online communities is offering a challenge to the traditional forms of education. Virtual communities require various forms of interaction and participation among their members such as email distribution, commenting on blogs or message boards, or video gaming communities. Despite their members' inability to interact physically, virtual communities share similar characteristics with real communities such as organizing themselves into cliques or forming new communities that shares similar interests, values jargon, titles, leaders and ways of communicating or exchanging knowledge and information (Andreatos, 2006). One challenge to the use of virtual communities in education is the digital divide, whereby there is unequal access among internet users at the individual- and cross-national levels (DiMaggio et al, 2001). This is a hindrance to education because it creates differences in effective access to information among Internet users.

Members of virtual communities still have an edge over those in real communities, however, due to their ability to interact with likeminded individuals instantaneously from anywhere across the globe. In a sense, virtual communities offer real diversity across cultures, language, age/generation, etc., making them a rich source of information and knowledge that can be relied upon as an education channel. Take the case of an online course of seventy students versus an on-campus class with twenty students. The online class will definitely have more diversity in opinions raised and information shared compared to the on-campus course.

The evolution of multiliteracies also poses a great challenge to the formal education systems. This is because there are so many materials available to the learner, therefore creating a need for instructors to educate the learner on how to critically interpret these forms of information (Thwaites, 1999). Another challenge to education is the use of English as the work language. As previously noted, this evolution of a work language tends to marginalize non-English speakers and creates a sense of Western superiority. Despite the work language having its advantages such as standardization, it negatively impacts the promotion of cultural diversity since information will mainly be available in the work language. This tends to contradict the philosophy of multiliteracies.

Increased Danger from Market Forces

As a result of the increased use of these forms of education, Thwaites (1999) argues that the possibility of domination by rival ideologies and discourses is inevitable and therefore for education to remain as the dominant mode of information it will be forced to compete with the "information industry." This, according to Thwaites raises the danger that multiliteracies could be captured by market-driven forces in order to keep up with the "new fast capitalist literature that stresses adaptation to constant change through thinking and speaking for oneself, critique and empowerment, innovation and creativity, technical and systems thinking, and learning how to learn" (New London, 1996, p.67).

As we enter into a new era of multiple, post-modern literacies where the gatekeepers of knowledge in academia and the publishing industry are being challenged by the web (Lotherington, 2000), the need to evaluate and validate information distribution is becoming evident. Like Burbules et al (2006) argue, the challenge now is not only access to information but rather access to the proper quality and quantity of information. However, this situation reiterates the paradox of English as an international work language--the first aforementioned challenge is to access information--and an English work language excludes certain segments of the population from access.

How New Digital Technologies are Affecting and Affected by the Multiliteracies Trend

History of Technology and Literacies

From the beginning of time, the forms and functions of literacy have primarily been determined by the constantly changing social influences at work inside societies and the technologies produced by these influences. As we explore the relationship between technologies and literacies we must not forget that just as in the past, social influences, and the technologies they produce, are driving the literacies of today.

A good example of how social influences can produce technologies that define the nature of literacy is the origin of the first known written language in the fourth century. Cradled in the Tigris and Euphrates river valley, the Sumerian people had become skilled engineers and farmers. By constructing water control systems of canals, dams, and dikes for irrigation, they had conquered these rivers and turned the desert land into fertile farmland. As their agricultural technologies improved and their economy expanded, it became necessary to create a system of recording business transactions and maintaining tax records. This social demand produced the first written language called cuneiform and the technology of clay tablets and wedge-shaped sticks called styli used to make impressions on the soft clay. The new language and the new technology required the systematic instruction of this new literacy to other scribes. Together, this new technology and literacy was used throughout Mesopotamia as the first official record-keeping system (Manguel, 1996).

Literacy also became a way to communicate life experiences. In the 11th century, at the peak of the Heian Period, Japanese noblewoman Murasaki Shikibu and the ladies of the royal court enjoyed storytelling and wanted a way to preserve their stories. This social need drove the ladies to develop a special language system of words and pictures; they used it to write the world's first novel, The Tale of the Genji (Manguel, 1996), a story about an Emperor's son. The language system was known only to the women of the aristocracy and written using illustrations and calligraphy on scrolls. It is believed that the original manuscript consisted of ten to twenty scrolls which contained the fifty-four chapters of the story. This was the first example of a technology the Japanese would call "picture scrolls" and this literacy was passed on through generations (Tale of Genji, 2007).

Around 1100 B.C., the Phoenicians were a prosperous people who thrived on the mercantile culture of their day. Using their large supply of fine cedar wood, the Phoenicians constructed boats strong enough to face the Mediterranean Sea and quickly established strong trade routes with those countries bordering the Mediterranean. Like the Sumerians, as their economy prospered, there arose a strong need for a better method of communication and record keeping. To meet this social need, a more advanced written code that represented their oral language was developed. This new technology, called syllabary, used twenty-two letters representing the spoken syllables of their language which further expanded their ability to communicate, record their travels, and record their business transactions. Syllabary required the teaching of new literacies that spread throughout the Middle East (Boyarin, 1993).

The Greek philosophers, in their quest for knowledge, rejected the myths about the gods and began their search for the laws of matter and energy and the basic principles of all things. At this time, public oral discourse was the primary method for the development and distribution of knowledge. The social need for a descriptive communication code forced these scholars to create a new written language. In the early 8th century B.C., Greek scholars, using the Phoenician syllabary as an example, developed the first alphabetic writing code, where each written symbol represented a meaningful sound (phoneme) of their language. This Greek language and alphabetic literacy not only became the language of the Greek Empire, but would be adopted by the Romans and become the language of the Roman Empire as well. Ironically, not everyone embraced the new alphabetic literacy of the Greek language. Both Plato and his teacher, Socrates, the great leaders of the academic world, were among the strongest voices of opposition, arguing this literacy would change the way people think, would destroy memory, shift power, and have a negative effect on social order (Murray, 2000).

As we have seen in these few examples, social forces demanded the development of technologies that created new literacies for those societies. However, during those time periods, the technologies focused only on the oral and written literacies.

Just as Socrates predicted, literacy has significantly impacted the way people think, shifted power, and changed the social order. Literacy was used by forces of resistance, for example, to alter the religious dogma of a society. In medieval Europe, the Catholic Church allowed only members of the priesthood to copy, read, and interpret religious texts to the people. Since the people had no direct access to the religious texts, they relied solely on the priests for religious instruction in their beliefs. However, there were forces of resistance who felt the people should be responsible for their own salvation through independent reading and studying of the texts. Martin Luther, a member of the theological faculty at the University of Whittenberg, wrote several papers challenging the practices of the Church, arguing that the people should not be forced to rely solely on the priests' interpretations. For challenging the Church, Luther was later excommunicated. After sentencing, Luther hid in Wartburg Castle where he translated the New Testament from Greek into the commoners' language, German (Matthews, 1966).

During this same time, printing technologies had been developed by Johannes Gutenberg. This technology would enable Luther to publish his works. In September 1522, five thousand copies of Luther’s translation of the New Testament were sold in two months. "The common view is that the invention of printing removed the power from the scholar-priests, replacing them with more democratic institutions. Many historians and populist writers claim that, because printed books were cheap and easily reproducible and therefore widely available, what began as a local quarrel between Martin Luther and his church was transformed into the Protestant Reformation. The claim is that the Reformation was possible because the Bible could be placed in the hands of the common people who no longer had to rely on the priests to interpret it for them" (Murray, 2000). Thus, using Gutenberg's mechanical technology, a printing literacy and a new book literacy were created.

Not everyone in the world was excited about the new printing and book literacies. To some, they represented an important political threat to their autocratic governments. One of those countries was England and its colonies where the government had placed strong restrictions on the use of printing presses by confining all printing to London, York, and the universities at Oxford and Cambridge. Printing was completely forbidden in the colonies. "As one Governor of Virginia, Sir William Berkeley (1660-1677) put it, 'But I thank God, there are no free schools nor printing...for learning has brought disobedience, and heresy, and sects into the world, and printing has divulged them and libels against the best government. God keep us from both'" (Ford, 2001).

During the early days of the American Revolution, it became critical that the people become informed citizens. This social influence demanded liberties, free speech, and a free press. It also demanded education and the establishment of public schools to develop literate students who would become responsible citizens. Here is yet another example of social pressures driving technologies (schools, textbooks, newspapers) and creating literacies. In the early Jeffersonian democracy, literacy became a vital element for the survival of the new government, making it possible for informed citizens to cast reasoned votes at the ballot box. Likewise, the social forces at work in our current society will also drive the development of new technologies and with them new literacies. This is not just a trend of the past but a trend of the future as well.

From a sociolinguistic perspective, Gee (1996) and The New London Group (1996) have argued that literacy has its roots in and grows out of the social practices of a culture. In these brief summaries of events in history we have seen this demonstrated. Literacy and literacy instruction have changed regularly based on changing social influences and the technologies they have produced. As we consider the events of the last five hundred years, literacy has emerged from various social influences, but has been primarily shaped by the technologies of the book and the printing press. However, in today’s information age, our global society "is defined largely by repeated, rapid, and revolutionary changes in technologies of information and communication. Within just twenty years, we have seen the wide-spread appearance of, among others: word processing technologies, electronic data base technologies, multimedia/hypermedia technologies, e-mail technologies, and Internet technologies. Each has helped to redefine the nature of literacy and each has seen revisions in its many uses that in turn have redefined the technology itself" (Leu, 2000). The development of the Internet and ICT (Information and Communication Technology) is quickly defining, shifting, and shaping the future of new literacies and consequently reshaping our world as we know it. Just as Socrates had warned, the power of these new technologies and the literacies needed to use them is redefining our culture, economy, work language, education and personal lives. It is critical that literacy theory, research, and pedagogy recognize this important fact.

Technologies that Drive or are Driven by Literacies

Our analysis of history has revealed a pattern of the needs of society pushing the development of technologies to meet those needs and the literacies and literacy instruction that were created to master the technologies. However, in the book Theoretical Models and Processes of Reading, the authors correctly point out that the relationship between technology and literacy has shifted to a transactional state. "Technology transforms the forms and functions of literacy (Reinking, 1998), but literacy also transforms the forms and functions of technology. Thus, the relationship between literacy and technology is transactional" (Ruddell et al, 2004). As information and communication technologies develop, new literacies must also be developed to fully exploit their potential. The flip side of the coin is that as society uses those technologies, it finds new ways of applying the technology to its needs and in the process the technology itself is transformed, which in turn creates new literacies. In the Ruddell et al (2004) text, this process of imagining new possibilities for literacy, transforming the function or the structure of existing technologies to construct this vision, and then sharing their work with other users is referred to as "envisionment." A classic example of this process is the use of the Internet. Originally designed as a military technology to enhance research communication between a handful of select universities, no one dreamed that ARPANET would evolve into a global information highway available to anyone in the world. As users recognized new ways this technology could be used, the technology changed and new literacies developed.

Scholars have recognized that the singular term, literacy, no longer accurately defines the growing number of changes in the form and function of literacies that can only be defined by a plural term. The New London Group (1996) coined a new term, multiliteracies, which they defined as "a set of open-ended and flexible multiple literacies required to function in diverse contexts and communities" (New London Group, 1996). These multiliteracies are evolving as a result of the multiplicity of rapid technology advances. In order to properly define and understand these multiliteracies, we must develop a systematic approach to characterize them within the framework of different technology contexts. These multiliteracies can be characterized in three levels of technology:

1. The New Literacies of Internet Technologies that Incorporate Multiple Media Forms

The literacies of the past were dominated by the literacy of press and the literacy of the book. These text forms of literacy were typically a combination of two types of media, printed text and two-dimensional graphics, with the occasional splattering of color to add emphasis and interest. As mentioned earlier in the #Implications for Education and Educators section, “Not only do children today need to be able to read, write, and understand words and numbers, but they also must comprehend visual and digital communication formats.” The Internet has introduced a new dimension of literacies with hypertext that incorporates a wide range of text forms, symbols, hyperlinks for quick navigation to other sources, along with audio and visual media forms. Web pages incorporate color, sound, animation, full-color pictures, video and virtual reality alongside the text to appeal to more of the viewer’s senses. The proliferation of this new authoring style is presenting meanings that are multiplicative in nature. Students must be able to interpret not only the message of the text, but the expansive significance of the entire page. The ability to understand the multiple, interdependent meanings embedded into a webpage will require multiple literacies.

Graphics are digital representations of drawings, charts, icons, or photographs. With the same motivation as the creators of the Japanese picture scrolls, web designers incorporate graphics into their web pages to visually enhance the text message. Because of the varied uses of images, graphics are designed in multiple formats, with JPEGs and GIFs being the most common. Viewers can download many of these graphics, resize them in an editing program, and use them for educational, business, or personal presentations. Educators can embed graphics into their class websites for students to download and incorporate into their studies.

Animation is the appearance of motion created by rapidly displaying a series of still images. Animated graphics make a web page more interesting and draw the viewer's attention to important information. Animated GIFs, marquees, and banners are just a few of the implementations of this media. These forms of animation are often used to make special announcements on a webpage.

Audio can be spoken text, music, sound effects, or any other sound. Like graphics, because of the multiple applications of audio in the web page, audio files are developed in multiple formats, including MP3, WAV, WMA, RealAudio, and QuickTime, each requiring special software. To allow audio to be played or downloaded to a computer, a special process known as streaming is used to transfer the data in a fast, continuous, and even flow. Streaming audio is a process which allows the user to listen to the sound file as they download it to their computer. Streaming audio makes it possible for educators to place introductions, lectures, instructions or discussions on their class websites.

Video is when full-motion images are played back at various speeds. Many web pages use real-time video to enhance the viewer's understanding of the information being communicated or for entertainment. Like audio, video uses multiple file formats. Because video files are very large in size and take a long time to download, they are often kept short. Streaming video, on the other hand, allows the user to view longer and live video images as the file is downloaded onto their computer. Streaming video has the potential to create new possibilities for education. Students can now view an actual volcanic eruption and watch the effect it has on the environment rather than looking at some faded pictures in a textbook.

Virtual Reality (VR) is the simulation of a real or imagined environment that appears as a three-dimensional space. Inside this space, the user can view and interact with 3-D images, adding to the reality of the interaction. Games are a popular use of VR by K-12 students, but VR is also used by businesses to showcase products, processes, and advertisements. VR also opens a world of opportunity for learning experiences in education.

The purpose in listing these components of the Internet’s multiple media forms is to point out that students viewing a web page must possess multiliteracies to capture the full meaning of the text. Whereas students of the past only needed to linearly process the meaning of printed text in text and book literacies, in the hypertext context of today, students must be able to critically analyze and interpret messages within the multiple modalities on the webpage. Today's students have grown up with technology and consequently, are more intuitive visual communicators, have greater visual-spatial skills, enjoy inductive discovery and are able to quickly shift their attention from one task to another (Oblinger, 2005). Although they may possess these skills, students often do not have the knowledge to customize the technologies to meet their individual needs. Students must understand the various file formats, operations, and software necessary to manipulate these multiple medias to enhance their communication and learning skills. Consequently, educators must broaden their definitions of literacy to encompass the new multiliteracies noted above.

2. The New Literacies of the Internet and ICTs which Incorporate Multiple Forms of Information Location and Retrieval

The second level of multiliteracies pertains to the quickly emerging forms of communication the Internet and Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) provide to society. Whereas communication evolved from the oral dissertation to written text, today’s technologies enhance those literacies with new hypertext communication capabilities. Students must know how to search the expanse of the Internet to find the information they need. This requires knowledge of the various types of search engines and the ways in which they can be used. Students may choose to search key words which would require one type of search engine, or they may choose to search in hierarchical categories which would be indexed in a different type of search engine.

Wikis and Real Simple Syndication (RSS) are other avenues for finding information. Basically, a wiki is a website where anyone can post, edit, or retrieve data anytime they want. The most common wiki is Wikipedia.org which is an online encyclopedia that currently contains over seven million articles in two hundred languages and is still growing. Real Simple Syndication is a result of weblogs (blogs) which generate a behind-the-scenes code called XML. This code, sometimes referred to as the "feed," allows users to "subscribe" to the content that is offered on a particular weblog so that the user no longer has to visit the blog to read the postings. The postings are automatically sent to the user. This allows the user to read more content from more sources in less time. Many publications are now offering their periodicals in RSS format.

According to research findings by the U.S. Department of Education, "When students are asked what they want from the Internet, the most common response is to get 'new information.' Close behind, at about 75%, is to 'learn more or to learn better.' The use of the Internet to learn is not limited to school work. Students are often informal learners, seeking information on a variety of topics, such as personal health" (Grunwald, 2003). Whether for work, education, play, or personal gain, students must possess strong information literacies. Information literacy includes the ability to use the right tools and technologies, to select the right resources, to choose the best research methodology, and to critically evaluate the intellectual, human, cultural, and social strengths and weaknesses of the information being gathered.

"As long as they've been alive, the world has been a connected place, and more than any preceding generation they have seized on the potential of networked media" (Crittenden, 2002). As a result, today's students must also be connected to their world as they move from classes to work to social activities to home. These connections can be asynchronous (any form of communication that involves a measurable time interval between the sending and receiving of the content of any message) or synchronous (instantaneous, in real time).

Asynchronous Communication

Asynchronous communication is another area that social influences have demanded. Historically, the postal service was the technology used to fulfill this need. Today’s Internet introduces technologies like email, list servers, discussion boards, and weblogs (blogs).

Electronic mail (email or e-mail) is a store-and-forward method of composing, sending, storing, and receiving messages over electronic communication systems. First designed in the early days of ARPANET, email became a crucial component in the evolution of the Internet.

A list server is a server that manages mailing lists for groups of people. It is a special type of Internet forum that allows the widespread distribution of information across the Internet to users in a particular group. The two most popular list server systems are Listserv and Majordomo.

Similar to a Discussion Board, a weblog (blog) is an Internet publishing tool that allows an individual, group, class, or business to post journal entries to a website. The blogs can be open to the public or created in a private domain where access is limited only to those with the proper authentication. Blogs are excellent journaling tools and can be used for threaded discussions.

Synchronous Communication

Although asynchronous communication is fine if you don’t mind the wait, today’s fast-paced society craves more real-time communication. To meet that need, instant messaging technologies, video conferencing, chat rooms, and virtual environments have emerged. Instant Messaging (IM) is a common communication and socializing mechanism used by youth today. Because it can support both singular and multiple simultaneous conversations, it is an excellent tool for collaboration. It is estimated that 70% of today's teenagers use IM to "talk" to their friends. As the youth of today’s society have desired even more social interaction, these technologies have been combined and evolved into social networking sites like Facebook, MySpace, Xanga, Friendster, and LiveJournal. Today's youth use technology extensively to network and socialize. Their communities and social networks are physical, virtual, and hybrid. They are emotionally open and use the Internet to express their feelings and views, meet new people, and experience cultural differences (Oblinger, 2005).

3. The New Literacies of Internet Technologies that Incorporate New Skills Demanded by Social Forces

The final area of multiliteracies focuses on those special skills a person in today’s society will need to be successful both in the workforce and in his/her personal life. Most of us are accustomed to exchanging information with close friends or co-workers. The Internet brings the world to our doorsteps and forces society to learn how to communicate on a global level. "The global sharing of information permitted by the Internet introduces new challenges for students now expected to interpret and respond to information from multiple social and cultural contexts that share profoundly different assumptions about our world" (Ruddell et al, 2004).

Global competition and the changing nature of work are two of the most powerful forces driving literacies today. To be successful in today's global marketplace and become a "high performance" workplace, businesses must realign four critical areas of operation:

Businesses must change their leadership structure from a centrally-planned organization practicing top-down management to one that relies on collaborative teams at all levels practicing a horizontal management method.
Problem-solving skills must improve so that problems can be quickly identified and feasible solutions determined.
Effective collaboration and communication skills must improve so the right decisions and changes are clearly communicated at every level.
Businesses must improve the ability to efficiently access data and determine how to use the data to develop meaningful information (Leu, 2000).

Global economic competition and the changing nature of work will continue to place these demands on society for effective information and communication. To that end, businesses are seeking employees trained in the multiliteracies the Internet provides. Nations around the world are recognizing the need to prepare students for these challenges and are addressing the issues with public policy initiatives to raise literacy standards and integrate these technologies into classrooms.

How Will Technologies Evolve to Continue Promoting This Trend?

In her article "New Media and New Literacies: Perspectives on Change," Carol Holder compares today’s response of education to literacies and new technology as "old wine in new bottles." Her concern is that education is still trying to hang on to the old literacies but serve them up in new technology "bottles." The solution she prescribes is placing new wine in the new bottles. "Across the curriculum today, literacy demands extend beyond the traditional modes of reading, writing, and speaking to incorporate faculty with new genres, new messages, and new media and information technologies" (Holder, 2006). Educators can no longer hang on to the old literacies of the past while trying to integrate new technologies into their pedagogy. The winds of social change are blowing, forever altering the skills students must have to be successful in this global world.

How will technologies evolve to promote the development of these skills? To answer this question, we must consider two winds of change that will have considerable impacts on technologies and literacies of the future. Earlier, we discussed three basic strategies upon which to build the skills our students need: multiple literacies, continuous inquiry, and reflection (Goodman, 2004). One of the current winds of change has to do with the rapid advancement of the technologies themselves. Because of these rapid advancements in technology, multiple literacies are becoming deictic. When examining history, we saw how both the forms and functions of literacy changed regularly over time, but because technological changes came slowly, literacies also changed slowly. Today’s technology changes are happening at such a rapid pace that changes in literacies are limited, not by the technology, but by our ability to adapt and learn new literacies as they evolve. These rapid changes in technology have created a type of literacy that exists within the context of technology at that very moment. As the technology changes, the literacy must change also. Learning how to use word processing software today provides you with a literacy that is only good until the next revision of that software is released. As literacy becomes increasingly deictic, the changing constructions of literacy within new technologies will require education to keep up with these changes. Students must learn that being literate is no longer a final state but an ongoing, lifelong process. As the Internet and Information Communication Technologies (ICTs) drive the new multiliteracies, teachers will become more important, though their role will change dramatically (Leu, 2000). Educators must be able to identify and adapt to the changes as they arise.

The second wind of change has to do with a movement in the philosophy of education away from the idea of “classrooms” to the idea of “learning spaces.” This is more than a cute change in terminology. A recent EDUCAUSE eBook entitled Learning Spaces notes that “[s]pace, whether physical or virtual, can have a significant impact on learning. Learning Spaces focuses on how learner expectations influence such spaces, the principles and activities that facilitate learning, and the role of technology from the perspective of those who create learning environments: faculty, learning technologists, librarians, and administrators. Information technology has brought unique capabilities to learning spaces, whether stimulating greater interaction through the use of collaborative tools, videoconferencing with international experts, or opening virtual worlds for exploration" (Oblinger, 2006).

Traditionally, classrooms were the places where students and teachers met in physical environments, at a scheduled time, in a formal structure of learning. Learning spaces can be physical, virtual, or blended environments that are more flexible and can be formally scheduled or individually selected by the learner. The structure of learning can be formal, facilitated within a virtual program or online course, or be self-directed.

Learning spaces will drive the development of new technologies based on three educational trends:

movement toward active and social learning strategies
movement toward human-centered design
movement toward devices that enrich learning (Brown & Long, 2006)

Continuous inquiry, one of the basic strategies to build student skills, is being supported by active learning, interaction and social engagement. These pedagogies will be forces driving the technology of the new learning spaces. "The learning literature agrees that learning can be enhanced, deepened, and made more meaningful if the curriculum makes the learners active participants through interactivity, multiple roles (such as listener, critic, mentor, presenter), and social engagement (such as group work, discussion boards, wikis)" (Brown & Long, 2006). Informal learning spaces will be characterized by services and technologies like wireless networks, multimedia projection systems, interactive whiteboards, personal response systems, and handheld computers.

Secondly, human-centered learning space design moves away from the traditional information-centered classroom design, where the student had to seek and find information. Human-centered learning spaces will focus on the individual needs of the student while empowering him/her to learn. The student does not focus on seeking information, but on the application of information. It is an environment that encourages reflection, one of the basic strategies mentioned earlier. The movement from traditional teacher-centered learning to the more constructivist methods will be accomplished by the use of learning spaces and the integration of technology into the mainstream of the learning experience. Technology will assist the student in moving from a learning space in a physical classroom to a virtual space in a virtual world, to an online space, to a blended space.

Finally, learning spaces will integrate the use of common, personal technologies that will provide multiple opportunities to enhance knowledge. MP3 players can provide students with course content via podcasts and downloaded audio and video files. USB flash drives can hold entire application environments, course materials and supplementary materials, allowing students to take all of their course materials with them and work from any computer, anywhere, anytime. Cell phones now offer many of the same new technologies offered by PDAs, providing full access to the Internet. As technologies become smaller, faster, and more mobile, teachers will find a goldmine of resources available for use in learning spaces.

In short, the change in educational philosophy from classrooms to learning centers and the deictic nature of literacies will be two of the greatest forces driving the technologies of tomorrow. They represent two of the greatest rewards, and possibly two of the greatest pitfalls, to educators who must race to keep up.

Literacies in America's Schools

Curricula across the nation are quite diverse. In elementary schools, many students have one teacher who instructs all the different subject areas. As students progress into middle school and high school, they start to see a variety of instructors who all have different backgrounds. Curriculum literacy deals with the differentiation of subject-specific literacy demands. Len Unsworth (2001) explains that "[r]esearch from a variety of theoretical perspectives has shown that school subject areas have their own characteristic language forms and hence entail distinctive literate practices" (p.10). There is a wide variety of literacies not only within one lesson, but across school subject areas. Many researchers have moved away from "literacy across the curriculum" and are specifying the interface between a specific curriculum and its literacies rather than imagining there is a singular literacy that could be spread homogenously across the curriculum (Unsworth, 2001, p.11).

The different types of literacies that fall into the curriculum can be placed into genres including explanations, reports, procedures, and narratives. Certain genres seen in reading and writing materials are more common in some subjects than others. For example, a science teacher would commonly use explanations and procedures to teach the lesson. In return, the students would use these literacies to demonstrate that they are gaining knowledge of the specific science topic being taught. The students would also see more examples of these genres in their science textbooks. Looking at these two specific genres, a history teacher may often include explanations in lectures or readings; however, this teacher would probably not use procedures as often as the science teacher down the hall. An English teacher or language arts teacher would use many different types of literacies across the subject. There are so many different subject areas, especially when you get to the more affluent school districts that offer many electives for the students to choose. This offers richer districts an opportunity because they can provide students with electives in foreign languages which bring a whole new realm to literacy. Richer districts have more technology opportunities which provide students with a different curriculum than less fortunate districts. The challenge is the unfair distribution of finances to districts across the state, country, and world.

Unsworth went on to state, "Across all the different subjects there is a variation in the deployment of grammatical resources in different genres and in the language. Understanding the grammatical forms of written English and how these are characteristically deployed in the genres of school subject areas is a crucial resource for enhancing students’ comprehension and composition of the distinctive discourse forms of different school subject areas" (Unsworth, 2001, p.11).

Essentially, the research is saying that teachers need to have a shared metalanguage, which comes from explicit teaching of functional grammar and genre. The understanding between teachers and students positions the learners to comprehend and compose text forms of their school subjects and critique the perspectives on the knowledge they construct. Thus, students and teachers can be on the same page with the text forms and language from subject to subject.

This also poses a number of challenges, however. First, teachers must be trained to develop this metalanguage. Second, it may be hard to obtain teacher buy-in. Third, training of this magnitude requires large blocks of time. Finally, without financial incentives from the district, there would be a struggle for participation. In many states, school districts’ finances vary so widely that some are unable to afford such training, thus enhancing the digital divide.

In addition to the challenges listed above, Burbles and Callister (2000) offered three challenges to the conventional thinking about using technology in their book, Watch IT. First, they question the phrase "informational technology" as being too passive. Traditionally, the word "information" is often related to the transmission and acquisition of facts. However, as the authors argue, information is actively searched, encountered, selected, interpreted, constructed, and filtered though links and hyperlinks on the Internet. Second, the authors propose a relational view of technology that acknowledges the changes it has brought to our culture, social interactions and institutions. Third, the authors argue for a "post-technocratic" perspective that anticipates emergent ways of utilizing and benefiting from, and also problems associated with using the technologies. "Technocratic" approaches to information technology assume either technological determinism (i.e., technology is either inherently good or inherently bad) or technological voluntarism (i.e., it is entirely up to technology designers and users to define how to use the technology and what will be its consequences). A "post-technocratic" perspective anticipates and critically reviews these new emerging aspects as well as it expects a transformation of the criteria for the critique themselves.

Benefits of Teaching Literacies with Technology for Different Student Groups

Digital technology is no longer the wave of the future; it is here in full force. As discussed earlier, the number and types of available digital technologies is ever-growing. While each of these devices, methods or interfaces is used for personal communication with others or for accessing information, they can also be applied to the realm of education for specific groups of underrepresented students who may otherwise not gain the same access to education as their peers. It is our argument, along with Kellner (2000), that multiliteracies and technology together can be used to empower individual student groups who are traditionally excluded, thereby reconstructing the underlying framework of education to make it more accepting and responsive to the constant changes and challenges of a multicultural society.

Specifically, student groups that will be discussed and considered include: (1) technologically savvy students; (2) bilingual/bicultural students; and (3) students with disabilities. The world has evolved into a fast-paced information highway accessible through a vast array of channels. The diversity of the population has changed both culturally and linguistically; thus, the role of technology is also changing. Digital technology has taken on an important function as an assistive tool to help create access to the evolving industries and facets of life. It is well documented that incorporating multiliteracies into educational teaching practices better prepares students for the world in which we live (New London Group, 1996; Department of Language, n.d.; Stevens, 2005). While projects such as the Canadian Multiliteracy Project report the benefits students gain from accessing knowledge in multiple formats and provide educators with suggestions to continue this trend, there are also important points to be made about the benefit of such approaches for specific student groups.

Tech Savvy Students

Some students are naturally adept at operating technology and wrapping their brains around new concepts in perhaps a different medium. As an educator, it is imperative to acknowledge the strengths of your students and help them to have success. In this way, it could be very beneficial for that particular student who is quite technologically savvy to explore learning and teaching others using digital literacies. For the student who is quite savvy, they may be able to make tremendous gains and become a natural expert which helps with self-confidence and hopefully excites the student about learning.

Additionally, using digital technology to take advantage of multiliteracies has other benefits for students who may be gifted. Teachers are more easily able to meet the educational needs of all students at varying levels by relying on digital technology. For example, in one Gifted Education program in London, teachers are able to integrate digital technology for students to engage in independent study using an interactive whiteboard to collaborate with other gifted students (Thomas, 2005). In many districts, there are not actual gifted education programs and therefore, online communities have become instrumental in achieving these types of enrichment and meeting the educational needs of these students.

From a multiliteracy standpoint, technologically savvy students and gifted students are able to be challenged in different ways and become more autonomous and self-reliant (Lambert, 2001). They are able to develop skills required for lifelong learning and will be better equipped to obtain work by taking advantage of the "evolving language of work, power, and community, and fostering the critical engagement necessary for them to design their social futures" (New London Group, 1996). Utilizing digital technology as a form of literacy development is more than just using technology to access information. It also involves the synthesis of physical, sensory, and cognitive skills needed to navigate the system and develop an understanding of the underlying principles being taught. Additionally, technologically savvy students are afforded the opportunity to challenge authority of teachers to a certain degree. This can be viewed as a benefit for the students while also a potential danger for their teachers. It benefits students as they learn and grow from their mistakes and build the confidence to question things in their environment. At the same time, however, it can present itself as a challenge to educators to find the balance of how much to let their students struggle, question, make mistakes, and find innovative ways of accomplishing tasks versus how much direct instruction or enforcing of rules is required. Some individuals may view this approach as a real danger, but with appropriate boundaries and limits the benefits and growth that can occur outweigh the dangers.

Some drawbacks to relying on digital technologies to aid in the education of these individuals include the cost to provide students with access and the time required to reconfigure existing curricula to incorporate digital media as a primary method of learning. It is also important that technologically savvy students and gifted students still obtain a well-rounded education with exposure to both digital literacies as well as print literacies and are equipped with the skills to navigate both the digital world and the "real" world. More and more digital technologies are in the mainstream culture; however, these students still need skills to obtain information and be functionally literate if there is a power outage or if they are working in an underdeveloped community. Overall, using digital technologies to promote multiliteracies has become instrumental for these students.

Multicultural Students (Bilingual/Bicultural Students)

For bilingual/bicultural students, taking advantage of digital technologies to help aid in literacy development has huge benefits. The definition of being literate has evolved beyond simple text literacy to include functional, academic, critical and technological literacy. Students who are bilingual/bicultural must also be exposed to the digital technologies--particularly in ESL classrooms. The benefits for these students are twofold. On the one hand, these students can take advantage of digital technologies to better improve their English literacy skills and to bridge the gap between their first language and English. Secondly, it is believed that in order to be successful in academics and with employment, having exposure to and understanding of multiliteracies is crucial (New London Group, 1996; Kasper, 1999; Cummins et al, 2005). In practice, bilingual/bicultural students who are late learners of English typically have a considerable amount of catching up to do with their English skills. Unfortunately, due to limited resources and practicality, immersion in genuine dual language programs that use an individual's first language as the foundation for teaching a second language, i.e. English, are few and far between. More programs of this nature are appearing in districts, but considering the multitude of languages spoken throughout the United States it would not be feasible for all bilingual/bicultural students to be enrolled in such programs. Therefore, many bilingual/bicultural students fall through the gaps and may be in jeopardy of dropping out of school or not obtaining adequate employment (Cummins et al, 2005).

How can digital technologies help in a situation such as this? Digital technologies can be beneficial to foster reading and writing skills for bilingual/bicultural students. Kasper (1999) explains how surfing the Internet is a great resource for building literacy skills. She claims that not only does the Internet provide students with opportunities to initiate communication and engage in interactive live conversations, but argues that exposure to hyperlinked text "encourages a nonlinear pattern of exploration and discovery" thereby exercising the student's cognitive abilities to integrate information from numerous sources. For bilingual/bicultural students, this is a subtle, yet effective way of working on these skills to help lessen the gap between their first language abilities and English skills.

Alternatively, aside from simply surfing the Internet, digital technologies such as video chatting can also be used to help with linguistic development for bilingual/bicultural individuals. For many bilingual/bicultural students, they are only in an ESL setting for a small portion of the school day, and ultimately the goal is for full immersion into English relatively quickly (this is based off of the transitional model of bilingual education). Therefore, support from regular classrooms, not just the ESL classrooms, for these students is essential. Using digital technologies such as video chatting could provide these students with the opportunity to engage in conversation with individuals who were strong language models in the student’s first language. This has implications for improved psychosocial, identity, linguistic and literacy development.

In addition to these linguistic benefits to using digital technologies to expand knowledge of multiliteracies, there are other benefits for bilingual/bicultural students. As mentioned above, bilingual/bicultural students can interact with web pages, and individuals who share their same language and culture. This can help with identity development.

Deaf Bilingual/Bicultural Students

There is one subgroup of bilingual/bicultural students, deaf bilingual/bicultural students, that deserves special mention because they are already taking advantage of multiliteracies and digital technology. For deaf students, the concept of literacy is often difficult to teach because not only is the student unable to hear, there are often language gaps even in the student’s first language. In many cases, a deaf child may not be exposed to a strong first language until they reach school age because 95% of Deaf children have hearing parents. It is well documented that the majority of profoundly deaf children have a tendency to struggle with their literacy skills. In fact, very few deaf high school graduates read beyond the fourth grade reading level (Goldin-Meadow & Mayberry, 2001; Wilbur, 2000). One common theme in recent literature has been how to help children who are profoundly deaf improve their literacy skills by bridging the gap between sign language and text. One way to bridge this gap is to take advantage of digital technologies to develop multiliteracies for these students. For example, becoming literate in the traditional sense, many deaf students are left out because of the strong phonic-based approach to teaching literacy skills. However, deaf students naturally are technologically savvy and have become multiliterate in recent years, relying on text messaging, video conferencing, and reading body language and facial expressions.

Digital technologies can be used in mainstream school settings to provide further support for deaf bilingual/bicultural students. In addition to the approaches already mentioned--video conferencing/chatting, interacting with websites and hypertext--it is important to recognize that through the use of digital technologies, deaf students are more easily able to access the hearing world and individuals in it.

Consider, for example, the amount of time it would take for a deaf student to order a pizza using a teletypewriter (TTY) device (also a form of digital technology promoting multiliteracies, as text is typed into the machine and either sent to another TTY device or to a hearing operator who reads and speaks the written text to the communication partner) versus that same student who is able to order the pizza online or using video relay service (VRS). Video relay service is a free service on the Internet where individuals can make a telephone call via an Internet video connection between the user and the relay center which is staffed with sign language interpreters. VRS allows conversations to occur at approximately normal speed with the benefit of being visually based, typically in sign language, for deaf and hard of hearing consumers.

Thinking about the fact that deaf students struggle to reach age-equivalent reading levels, taking advantage of these digital technologies allows for greater facilitation between deaf and hearing individuals. Multiliteracies allow for access in other mediums to knowledge and information that is crucial for success both academically and professionally.

Educators studying deaf communities worldwide have begun to explore the benefits of digital technologies and the "fascinating speculation about the transformative role multiliteracies could play in Deaf education" (Kalantzis & Cope, 2001). Namely, broadening the concept of literacy to include literacy in sign language and literacy of deaf culture will allow deaf children to move between sign language and English as a written second language. It is also believed that multiliteracies can serve as empowerment to deaf students by providing them with a voice in mainstream (hearing) society. Additionally, digital technologies enable deaf students to develop a higher level of thinking and cognition as they become critical thinkers; previously, this was difficult for deaf students to achieve because of the language barrier or gaps in their English language development. This is already happening; with the recent protests at Gallaudet University (a school located in Washington, D.C. and the first school of higher education specifically designed for deaf and hard of hearing students), deaf individuals have been engaging in meaningful intellectual discussions and debates. Many of these discussions have occurred using video blogs which enable deaf students to articulate their opinions using sign language.

While there are many benefits to incorporating teaching literacies through the use of technology for deaf students, as discussed here, there are some potential drawbacks. O’Neil (2002) cautions educators that for deaf students "a text-heavy website can lead to confusion and misunderstandings." She continues to explain that many deaf students have gaps in their vocabulary and so perhaps this contributes to the students’ frustrations. Other points included the importance of "deaf-friendly design interfaces" noting that websites which may be quite interactive and flashy for hearing students may be too overwhelming for deaf students. Therefore, it was recommended that good web sites to use when working with deaf students include ones that use graphics to support texts, have consistent styling throughout the site, use an easily readable font, and are generally user-friendly (O’Neil, 2002).

This section suggests that educators should rethink their implicit assumptions about how to develop literacy among bilingual/bicultural students by incorporating digital literacies into their practices. Many researchers believe, additionally, that acknowledging a student's first language is key to promoting further learning. This can be done with the help of digital technologies through video chatting with users of the student's first language, using websites to create bilingual texts (Cummins, 2005) and personal websites which promote both languages. The possibilities are endless; digital technology can aid educators in their quest to ensure all students, regardless of their first language, are receiving comprehensive access to education.

On the issue of identity development, a very important one for many bilingual/bicultural students, bilingual education researchers Cummins et al (2005) argue that teaching literacy can be paired with helping to foster a strong identity for these students. They believe that through using effective strategies to teach literacy to these students while preserving their first language, thus acknowledging their strengths and making them feel comfortable, an important bond between identity and literacy is formed. Additionally, the more receptive the school system is to embracing these students’ first languages and using them as a springboard for English literacy through the use of digital technologies, the more effective they will be.

Above all, using multiple literacies can aid in providing equal access to education curriculum and instructional goals, and support the development of literate thought for all students (Michael & Trezek, 2006).

Students with Physical Disabilities

Students with physical disabilities may struggle with developing literacy skills using traditional methods because of certain physical limitations (i.e., the inability to manipulate pages of a book, or focus eyes on text) inhibit their ability to do so. These students can benefit from the integration of digital technology and literacy. Through the use of assistive devices and accessible web browsers, information and access to literature becomes easier for students with such disabilities.

Assistive technology in the classroom or as part of the computers used by all students in a particular classroom can help to bridge this gap and enable students with physical disabilities to develop literacy skills alongside their peers. For these students, being exposed to multiple forms of literacy and developing technological skills can have huge benefits academically, socially, professionally, and for independent living. Many assistive devices which are designed to help individuals with disabilities live more independent lives require an underlying digital literacy in order to operate them. Therefore, teaching these skills in school could have a considerable impact on the students’ lives.

Considering students with severe vision impairment, the ability to investigate and create multimodal texts is limited. Oftentimes, due to their disability, these students are dependent upon peers to assist with the visual design elements of projects or activities. One challenge when working with students with vision impairments is how to provide them with direct access, in an appropriate manner, to all the information being presented visually to the other students. However, digital technologies, such as screen readers, enable students with vision impairments to engage in some of these activities and develop a different type of literacy, one that is more aural.

Gentle, Knight and Corrigan (2005) explain some of the difficulties educators face with adapting complex educational materials. They note that "[a] single visual image is static. Its reproduction in a tactual format is also static, whereas its sonic reproduction can be continuously repeated. A multimedia presentation, however, is far more complex than a single visual image, and occurs in a longer time frame. As an example, imagine the difference between the messages and meaning conveyed by a painting and those conveyed in a short video. Movies and videos containing strategically placed audio descriptions of visual actions and expressions have enabled independent access by people with vision impairments, and should be considered as valuable aids to accessing visual texts" (p. 5). This helps to illustrate the challenges educators face when working towards educating all students using multiliteracies and technology.

Another challenge is the struggle to ensure online learning opportunities are designed in a manner that is compatible with assistive devices for people with disabilities. The World Wide Web Consortium's Website Accessibility Initiative has guidelines to help ensure that all individuals, regardless of disability, can interact with digital media (Web Accessibility, 2005).

Students with Learning Disabilities

Students with learning disabilities can also benefit from being taught literacies with technology. Technology, though not a cure, can ameliorate frustrations often faced by students with learning disabilities with regards to literacy. Individuals with learning disabilities face disadvantages and may struggle to develop literacy skills. However, many individuals with such difficulties lead successful lives. In a research study by the National Centre for Vocational Education Research in Australia, the ways in which certain individuals achieved success were examined. In many of the cases, digital technologies were used to develop the abilities needed to maintain employment and lead successful lives (Waterhouse & Virgona, 2005). For example, some individuals relied on PDAs, email or voice recognition software more than hand-writing, thus becoming more technologically literate which, along with other literacies, increased their chances of success.

Conclusion

There is no doubt the evolution of multiliteracies has ushered us into a new era in which digital technologies are playing a central role in our daily lives. The emergence of these new applications is generating considerable speculation regarding the social changes arising as the use of the Internet becomes more widespread. The World Wide Web has stimulated substantial developments in education such as distance education, electronic publishing, digital libraries and virtual communities (Kling, 2000) which have forced social and cultural changes and created educational opportunities and challenges.

Digital technology has been celebrated for its benefits—especially its propagation of the various forms of literacy and its ability to meet the needs of various users, such as people with disabilities. The movement toward a multiliterate world has both strengthened and been strengthened by the proliferation of digital technology. As with all issues involving substantial cost, there are also significant challenges to bridging the digital divide, affording all individuals access to these technologies. These disparities must be addressed as society becomes more globalized and integrated; otherwise, the gaps between the “haves” and the “have-nots” will expand at a faster pace than ever before.

Nowhere are the opportunities or dangers of the multiliteracies movement more real than in America’s schools. Awareness of the various literacies has offered teachers access a broader constituency of learners while at the same time valuing and promoting the diverse languages and literacies of our society (Janks, 2000). According to Janks (2000), the knowledge of various literacies has developed consciousness about the different ways of reading and writing that exist throughout the world. It has increased our appreciation of diversity in society through increased cultural and linguistic awareness, has increased accessibility of knowledge, and has empowered students. However, these achievements have also led to challenges in education. Teachers today are working with learners who are often more knowledgeable than they are, changing the student-teacher dynamic. The need to educate learners on how to interpret various forms of information through critical reflection has become central to a quality education; the necessity of re-educating and training teachers to pass these skills on to students has become critical.

One thing is clear: in today’s multiliterate world, educational institutions and educators cannot sit idly by and watch the world change around them; they must be at the center of this whirlwind of change.

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Multiliteracies and Education

From WikEd

Contents

Wiki Development Information

Introduction to Multiliteracies

Types of Literacy

Overview

Linguistic

Artistic/Visual

Musical

Technological

Media

Multicultural/Global

Educational Concerns and Challenges Surrounding These Definitions

Critical Literacies

Recognition Literacy

Reproduction Literacy

Reflection Literacy

Implications for Education and Educators

Social and Cultural Changes as a Result of the Evolution of Multiliteracies

Overview

Empowerment of Learners

Evolution of a Work Language

Evolution of International Communities

Increased Dependence on Electronic Media

Increased Challenge to Education

Increased Danger from Market Forces

How New Digital Technologies are Affecting and Affected by the Multiliteracies Trend

History of Technology and Literacies

Technologies that Drive or are Driven by Literacies

How Will Technologies Evolve to Continue Promoting This Trend?

Literacies in America's Schools

Benefits of Teaching Literacies with Technology for Different Student Groups

Tech Savvy Students

Multicultural Students (Bilingual/Bicultural Students)

Deaf Bilingual/Bicultural Students

Students with Physical Disabilities

Students with Learning Disabilities

Conclusion

References

Views

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