Modeling
From WikEd
Modeling
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[edit] Definitions:
For Comer (2004) Modeling is “A process of learning in which an individual acquires responses by observing and imitating others.�? He also calls it “A process of learning in which a person observes and then imitates others.�?
Wolfgang (2001) defines modeling as: “Showing actions that one wishes the students to imitate.�?
According to Aamodt (2004) modeling is ‘‘also known as social learning’’ (Aamodt, 2004)
According to Mayer (2002) modeling occurs when a teacher describes their cognitive processing in the course of carrying out the task.
Modeling includes:
1. Demonstration of the strategy with explanation
2. Use of analogies and examples for clarity
3. Think alouds- a way of making thinking public and modeling the
cognitive process being used in the learning.
4. Student trials-students model for each other with feedback
(School Improvement in Maryland-CRISS Program 1993).
http://www.ferris.edu/HTMLS/academics/center/Teaching_and_Learning_Tips/Learning%20How%20to%20Learn%20Skills%20and%20Strategies/TipsforModelingLearning.htm
[edit] Types of:
According to Crain (2005), Bandura said that modeling is thought of a child's exact imitation of another. This is another form of modeling though, called abstract modeling. In abstract modeling, children take rules and use them to form entirely new behavior. For example, a child seeing a dog for the first time might start calling all four-legged brown animals dogs. Research has shown that this form of abstract modeling does in fact happen. A group of researchers in 1974 showed that children modeled the general structure of the sentences that the researchers used, and used these new rules to create new sentences of the same structure (Crain, 2005).
Modeling can be a way to acquire a fear reaction by observing and imitating what another person is afraid of (Comer, 2004). For example, a little boy whose father is afraid of bugs and spiders may develop the same fears. People do not easily get over irrational fears and phobias (such as the fear of running water) because they tend to avoid the fearful stimuli and so never learn that it will not harm them.
There is also a form of modeling therapy called “vicarious conditioning‿ in which the therapist will confront the feared object while the patient watches (Comer, 2004). In this way, the patient learns vicariously that the object or situation is harmless, and after many sessions, the patient may be able to approach the object or situation.
Another version of modeling therapy is called “participant modeling‿ in which the patient is encouraged to join the therapist in confronting the feared object. Gradually, exposure to the fear situation will cause the irrational fears to dissipate and the patient to be phobia-free.
Participatory modeling is a type of modeling that uses ideas of Apprenticeships that uses a expert and novice to model a new skill and learn applications. (MJB)
Mathematical Modeling
- Building a concrete model of a mathematical expression or equation can be valuable in getting students to understand certain concepts such as "balancing" an equation, multiplying binomials, or adding integers. Go to Manipulatives in Mathematics Instruction for more information.
- Creating a mathematical model is just the opposite. Writing a mathematical equation to represent some real world phenomenon such as the population growth of a colony. "Generally the success of a model depends on how easily it can be used and how accurate are its predictions." (Edwards & Hamson, 1994,p.3)
[edit] Application:
We learn most from modeling when we are in new situations with no idea how to behave (Aamodt, 2004). In addition to this, we are most likely to model people who are similar to us (i.e. in gender, age, etc.), and those who are successful or who have status in our eyes. (example)
In order for modeling to successfully occur, first we must pay attention to the behavior of the model, then we must remember it, then we must be able to reproduce it.
When verbal instructions alone are insufficient, a teacher may model, or demonstrate, a desired behavior or action. Most students can easily imitate the behavior of a model, since most students’ history of reinforcement includes considerable reinforcement of imitative behavior, resulting in a generalized imitation response (Alberto and Troutman, 2003). Positive reinforcement of imitation can be seen in parent-infant interactions, and continues through the preschool years, although children may also imitate inappropriate behaviors.
Modeling is also important in that many theorists have suggested that antisocial behavior may be learned through modeling (Comer, 2004). For example, children of parents with antisocial personality disorder are more likely to have this disorder than the children of parents without the disorder. Behaviorists believe that parents teach children this disorder by unintentionally reinforcing antisocial behavior. However, this theory neglects the nature side of the issue with the fact that antisocial behavior may be genetically passed on and thus influences the children in that way.
Modeling also comes into play when the topic of modeling TV shows and movies is broached. For example, in 1994, the movie “Natural Born Killers�? debuted, telling the story of two killers who traveled the countryside. The film “inspired more copycat killings than any other movie ever made�? (Comer, 2004). The reasoning behind this? The copycats cited the movie as their inspiration. Essentially, they were modeling the actors.
Perhaps the saddest example of modeling comes in the form of suicide. Suicides by celebrities, highly publicized suicides, suicides by friends, family, and co-workers are particular triggers (Comer, 2004). In 1963, when Marilyn Monroe committed suicide, the national suicide rate rose twelve percent. Another interesting fact is that popular soap operas or television shows that depict suicides also have this effect upon the suicide rate (Myers, 2002).
Modeling should not be taken lightly, and the media of the country has a responsibility be careful what is said and shown. For example, when MTV covered the suicide of Kurt Cobain, they were very careful to portray the message that people should not commit suicide, and posting the numbers of suicide prevention centers, offered counseling services, and gave advice directly to callers (Comer, 2004). Because of these efforts, the suicide rate remained steady. In addition to the media, educators especially have a duty to locate and help any troubled victims before they hurt themselves. Another trigger of suicides may be the word-of-mouth publicity that follows suicide events. For example, in a Navy training school, multiple suicides and suicide attempts followed the successful suicide of a recruit. To stop this epidemic, the school started a suicide education program and therapy sessions (Comer, 2004).
Modeling is also very important in anger management. Students observe their teacher's reaction to stress and conflict and use that as a model for their own reaction to the same kind of situation (Beekman, & Holmes, 1993).
Modeling can be used as a communication strategies between teacher and students.
[edit] Evidence of Effectiveness:
For evidence of effectiveness one does not need to look for reaearch in text or documented cases. One need only look at a toddler who learns to eat with utencils, color, or pick up toys to see evidence of modeling. One can also look at an older brother who does not get in trouble for not doing his homework and understand why the younger brother makes the same attempts.
[edit] Critics:
[edit] Personal Testimonies:
I think modeling is very important. As an agriculture teacher, I try to show students how to do the lab with a demonstration before they start. This helps prevent mistakes from happening and materials from being wasted. Plus, students have many different learning styles and this helps cater to those who are visual learners and may not understand how to do the lab properly if just given oral directions. ~Linda
In my teaching experience, I have discovered that modeling can be both positive and negative in the classroom setting. In the negative sense, it implies that we, as educators, must be very vigilant in everything we do and say. Whether we realize it or not, our students are watching our every action. If we tell them to do one thing, and then do not follow that suggestion ourselves, the students are much more likely to follow what we do rather than what we say. On the positive side, I have found that using modeling is a very effective way to teach students, especially in my own field of music. As a choir director, I could easily show my students the kind of sound that I wanted them to produce. As a band director, I was able to use my trumpet or the piano to demonstrate concepts to students. This was, in many cases, a much more effective way of teaching a concept than attempting to put it (especially a difficult concept such as the color of a tone) into words. -Elizabeth Giger
I like to use models in the classroom also, I try to be a good model, the jury is still probably out on that question. I have found modeling effective when I bring in members of the community who are well respected, at least by the students. One time a vetern from Afghanistan came and talked to the class about conditions in Afghanistan and how difficult is was to search all the caves in the area. The students were awe struck and interested in this important topic. -Ralph Alexander
This is an example that not all modeling gets the response we expect. Children have misconceptions either because of their lack of sufficient experience or because of what someone intentionally or mistakenly taught them (Crockett, 2004). When we teach children and they can respond with the correct answer, we assume they learned it. As Crockett’s (2004) research shows, this is not always the case. An example is teachers demonstrating the concept of density by dropping things in water and plugging in the correct formula. All the students used the right terms, did the math right, but they didn’t understand. In fact, thanks to the example of dropping things in water, they could not apply density to other objects unless it involved water, could not apply translate material to other objects and saw density in relation to size, shape or materials (Crockett, 2004).Teresa Hibler
I always try to model for my students. In teaching math, modeling is a daily activity. Sometimes I have a student model for the rest of the class how to do a problem. As a parent, I use modeling everyday. Telling a 3 year old to pick up her toys will get you no where. I have to show her the proper way of putting them away so she learns how to do it on her own. Nichole Jessup
I use to teach with someone that came into the district the same year I did. He was not the best teacher in my opinion. He had the philosophy of do what I say and not as I do. So, he would ask students to sit in the chair, but he could sit on the tables. He would not allow gum by the students, but he could chew it. This type of modeling is not positive for the students. Adults should be setting the example, not trying to prove the students are wrong, or just simply say “I am the adult and when you get to become an adult, you may do these things.‿
Modeling can be used a good communication strategies between teachers and students as well as parents and children. Children learn from how you model certain behaviors more than what you tell them to do. In a Chinese Proverb, we say "Teaching by having yourself as an example is better than teaching by your words as an instruction." It speaks the power of modeling as an effective strategy. --Ting 16:20, 11 Dec 2004 (CST)
Modeling is an extremely important technique in the course I teacher to pre-service teachers. I am very cautious of everything I do as an instructor because I know my students are learning from my behaviors. I try to model best practices while teaching so that they not only read about the techniques in a textbook, but actually see it in practice. I also differentiate my instruction and assign work of varying difficulties to the students in my class to model the technique. --Benish 20:54, 3 May 2005 (CDT)
I use modeling in my math classroom from modeling behavior, to modeling equations, to modeling solutions through the use of graphing calculators, algebra tiles, unit cubes, or polyhedra. My geometry class works with unit cubes to model volume, surface area, and 3 dimensions. We then create polyheda shapes and calculate their surface area. E. Morrison
Modeling is an absolute must in music education. We model everyday the correct behaviors and procedures for our students. I can clearly remember when I was teaching elementary band that the first few weeks was composed completely of modeling how to put the instrument together, how to make a sound, how to sit, etc. Most of the time, it is easier to demonstrate than to describe actions in music. S.Luxbacher
As a music teacher, I model everyday. I sing and play instruments for my students so that they can hear and have a better understanding of what it is I am looking for in their playing and performing. It life, people need to take the same approach around younger people. Children look up to adults to see how they are to act and react in certain situations. If the parent is doing inappropriate things, it is likely that the child will do the same things. We need to be aware of this teaching method and use it to our advantage. -Jeremiah Kramper-
As another music educator, I will attest to the effectiveness of modeling- good sounds, correct posture, breathing techniques, and so on to my students. More importantly, I am using modeling to reflect my belief in the importance of music education. I am following a director who portrayed band as a form of entertainment and as a way to compete against other schools and feel superior when winning. This is an easy way to have the school board cut music when the budget becomes tight. Through my attitude and expectations in my students, I am modeling the importance of music education for its own value. It's been tough to stick to my guns, but through my attitude and persistance, I hope that my students will follow suit. It's difficult when the students I inherited from the former director have already been tainted with certain expectations, but the process should be reversed eventually! - Missy Legutki
As a primary teacher, modeling is a must. I don't just tell my students what I want them to do, I show them. For example, I have students sit at the carpet for read-alouds. The first time we come to sit at the carpet for a read-aloud, I will show them how I want them to sit, I don't just say "sit with your legs crossed." It makes it very clear what my expectations are. - E. Elrick
The use of modeling for a music educator is very key in instruction. From my teaching experiences and from learning to play the clarinet and other instruments, I have noticed that modeling is the most effective way of teaching a musical instrument. The students need to know how to have proper posture, proper breath support, and they need to know how to play with proper technique. It is much easier for the child to understand these things when you show them rather than describing it to them. - Timothy Hatcher
As a first grade teacher I find myself modeling all of the time. Most of what I teach to my students they are doing for the first time. I have to show them what I expect by modeling it to them. I have even seen where I forget that I am modeling all the time, even when I don't intend to, and my students pick up on what I do rather than what I say. I always need to be aware that every move I make the students are watching and like to imitate that behavior. ~R.U.
Modeling by a teacher is necessary at times, but what I have found to be the best type of modeling is when I have my students do the modeling. Sometimes they can do it on their own and sometimes I walk them through it. Either way getting the students involved makes them appreciate their work a little more. It also frees me to walk around the room and ensure that all students are working on the given tasks and help students that are stuck. The kids tend to listen to their peers more than me as well. MM
As a high school English teacher I assumed my students reading strategies were already honed and defined, taking for granted the skills that I use when I read by myself. During my third year I worked with a group of peers within my department to explore the benefits of Read-Aloud-Think-Aloud strategies within any classroom. For me, the number one skill to enhance reading effectiveness for students of all levels is to read for a purpose. In my classroom, before students ever read a word of a novel, I set up a purpose or question of inquiry for the student to explore as they read. Before long, a student is engaging in the text as they work through that inquiry rather than simple passive reading. These inquiries can be specific- what boys are elected to be leaders on the island? (Lord of the Flies), to a broad inquiry- what does it mean to be an effective leader? These strategies are even more effective when done in a group setting, either as a teacher-led example, small group in front of the class (Socratic Circle), or as multiple small groups around the room. Strategies like reading for inquiry and others can be used in any content area, at any level. ~B.C.
[edit] Web Resources:
Tips for Modeling Learning Skills and Strategies
[edit] References:
1) Aamodt, Michael G., (2004). Applied Industrial/Organizational Psychology. 4th Edition. Thomson Learning, Inc., Belmont, California.
2) Alberto, P. & Troutman, A. C. (2003). Applied behavior analysis for teachers (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall.
3) Comer, Ronald J., (2004). Abnormal Psychology. 5th Edition. Worth Publishers, New York.
4) Crain, William., (2005). Theories of Development: Concepts and Applications. 5th Edition. Pearson Education, Inc., New Jersey.
5) Mayer, Richard E. (2002). The Promise of Educational Psychology Volume II. Pearson Education, Inc., New Jersey.
6) Myers, David G., (2002). Social Psychology. 7th Edition. The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., New York.
7) Wolfgang, Charles H., (2001). Solving Discipline and Classroom Management Problems. 5th Edition. Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York.
8) Beekman, Susan, & Holmes, Jeanne (1993). Battles, Hassles, Tantrums & Tears - Strategies For Coping With Conflict And Making Peace At Home. New York: Harvest Books.
