Introduction on Stereotypes

Background Information on Stereotypes

Stereotypes reduce the characteristics of a category of people to such a level of simplicity that they become distorted and even falsified. A category of people then share an oversimplified image and characterization which is carried over to a large group to describe interpret and predict the actions of individuals.

The use of and belief in stereotypes creates an easy, but albeit, incorrect reference point of how to view other groups. In order to understand the complex and often unpleasant global events that take place, or justify planned or executed acts against alien groups, stereotypes create a definite demarcation between ones own group and the alien group.

Stereotypes are spread not only by individual attitudes but it goes further into individuals and societies by means of stories, poems, reports, songs and pictures. In addition to traditional ways of storytelling by fairy-tales and lullaby-stories mass media became an important way of transmission for stereotypes.

Schools and Stereotypes

Schools are also a place where stereotypes are spread either covertly or overtly, weaved into the standard intricacies and details of the curriculum, or raise their ugly head in the hidden curriculum, where teachers maybe aware or unaware as to how they may be transferring stereotypical attitudes and racism to their students in their behavior and attitudes toward students in particular groups, through lack of actual knowledge regarding certain groups thus through ignorance stereotypes are inadvertently perpetuated.

Not only do textbooks shape societies but they also are created by the prevailing ideologies of society. They are intended not only as means to realize the explicit curriculum of socially accepted knowledge, but also as the channel for widespread norms, values and attitudes. It is therefore not surprising that they also have been one of the main places where stereotypical, racist or ethnocentric ideas start or continue to form first about the peoples of the non-dominant community.

According to Van Dijk (2004), such racism in the early twentieth century and until the Second World War was quite clear, and constructed in terms of white dominance yet present-day forms of racism which support stereotypes in textbooks have become more subtle and implicit. Research on racism in textbooks that reinforce stereotypes of the last decades has found the following typical characteristics:

Exclusion: immigrants and minorities do not or barely appear as groups represented in textbooks. Even when significant groups of immigrants are present, many textbooks still represent society as homogeneous, mono-cultural and ‘white’. Diversity is not celebrated as a positive value.

Difference: If represented at all, immigrants, minorities and in general non-dominant peoples tend to be described as essentially different from ‘us’; differences are emphasized and similarities are de-emphasized.

Exotism: The ‘positive’ side of the emphasis on difference is the enhancement of the exotic, strange or otherwise distant nature of the ‘other’. This is especially the case for peoples living far away, or for the first small groups of immigrants from such peoples.

Stereotyping: Representations of the ‘others’ tend to be stereotypical, representational and unchanging. There are regular and recurrent expected themes in which various textbooks frequently reiterate each other in the reproduction of certain stereotypes regarding poverty, lacking modernity, backwardness etc.

Positive self-presentation of ‘us’: Our own group are ascribed with many positive characteristics: technologically advanced, democratic, well-organized, knowledgeable etc. Not surprisingly, the dominant ‘we’ epitomize the best group who can dynamically assist or rally around the (passive, vulnerable, incapable) ‘them’.

Negative representation of ‘them’: Besides the usual stereotypes, Others may also be attributed many negative characteristics, such as being violent, criminal, illegal, using drugs, authoritarian, totalitarian, fundamentalist, extremist, undemocratic, backward, passive, lazy or lacking intelligence.

The denial of racism: The positive representation of ‘us’ also implies the nonexistence, denial or lessening of the negative representation of ‘us’. As a result, our history of colonialism, aggression or racism tends to be overlooked or lessened. Racism is typically represented as of the past (slavery, segregation in the US) or elsewhere (e.g. South-Africa), and seldom as being here, now, among us, and in our nation or community.

Lacking voice: The ‘others’ are not only represented stereotypically and negatively, but also passively and as voiceless. We speak and write about 'them', but they are rarely heard from or shown as speaking and giving their own opinion about themselves and giving their own opinion, especially when saying critical things about us. The stereotype of Muslim woman typifies this.

Text and Images: Many of the characteristics mentioned above not only are exhibited in text, but also in images, which typically exhibit the exotic, negative or problematic dimensions of ‘others’ or other countries. Thus, we will typically see a picture of huts in Africa or igloos in Canada, boat dweller in Asia, deserts and camels in the Middle East instead of a traffic jam among skyscrapers of many cities in Africa, Asia or the Middle East. Assignments: The didactic dimensions of textbooks often presuppose the exclusive presence of ‘white’ students in class, addressing them specifically and inviting them to reflect about the ‘others’ as if these were not also present in class.

In the United States many textbooks by the large publishers use advisory boards that include representatives that represent religious and ethic groups. This practice is like a double-edged blade: on one hand these groups should aid in molding the correct facts and representation of themselves yet, the publishers have been accused of practicing self-censorship. In this way, world history textbooks, consistently filter or slant facts, be it negatively or positively, which can be very perilous in terms of what students actually are learning about these groups and the hegemonic or ethnocentric discourses that are produced in the name of an attempt of trying to be fair.

The Mass Media

Images and attitudes are created by the impact of the mass media. Historically inherited stereotypes, along with selective cultural images, have a great influence on what is known as public opinion. Often the media presents images and information that does not increase our knowledge but rather gives information that leads one to distorted conclusions which are intended to strengthen feelings of negativity, lead to a misunderstanding of reality and heighten fears and the rejection of other cultures. Reinforcing cultural stereotypes has the formation of opinions sway in the way that politicians want to bring about their desired end in the forum of world politics.

In modern industrialized societies the greatest part of leisure time is used to consume mass media. Mass media became an almost uninhibited means of education compared to parents and school and transfer social guiding principles. Other functions of mass media is control and observation of events taking place in the world followed by the socialization of individuals in their cultural surrounding.

Audiovisual mass media achieve publicity by creating the impression of eye-witnessing an event. The credibility of film and television is related to the power of the moving image. More than their influence on youth culture, films obtain the position of an visual encyclopedia of culture. Needless to say, a vast amount of leisure time activity in the world today is spent in exposure to the various forms of media.

References and Resources

Jones,Phillip. (2002) Billionaires, Bombers, and Belly Dancers.NEH 2002 The Arab World and the West Teacher In-Service Cultural Sensitivity Training Stereotyping Arabs.

van Dijk, Teun A., (2004) Racism, Discourse and Textbooks: The coverage of Immigration in Spanish textbooks. History Foundation, Istanbul.