Ethnocentricity
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Ethnocentrism: Brief History of the Concept
In 1767 the Scottish philosopher Adam Ferguson published an Essay on the History of Civil Society, probably the first attempt at an empirical investigation of the origins of war using ethnographic data. His analysis seemed to confirm Hobbes (1651): the primitive state was indeed a state of war (status hostilis): "We have had occasion to observe, that in every rude state the great business is war; and that in barbarous times, mankind, being generally divided into small parties, are engaged in almost perpetual hostilities" (Essay 3.5). In addition to maintaining the balance-of-power between societies, Ferguson ascribes to warfare the function of maintaining solidarity and morale within societies. In-group amity depends upon out-group enmity and vice versa. This idea could also be found, in primordial form, in classical authors (Dawson, 1996), but Ferguson probably offers the first analysis of the phenomenon of ethnocentrism in history. Though the term 'ethnocentrism' was to be coined a few decades later, the concept was by no means unknown among 19th century anthropologists such as Tylor (1871), who viewed ethnocentrism (as well as the obligations of the blood feud) as making sense within a framework of primitive concepts of law and justice. Also Darwin (1871) had noticed that contemporary 'primitive' peoples as a rule confined their sympathy to the own tribe and generally did not regard violence against other tribes as a crime. He clearly saw the correlation between intergroup competition and intragroup cooperation, which is the core of the ethnocentrism syndrome, in human evolution. So did his contemporaries such as Comte (1869), Spencer (1850 et seq.), Bagehot (1872) and Gumplowicz (1883). Spencer (1892) discovered that evolution, as seen to work in human communities, spoke with two voices, each enunciating a separate code. He called the one the 'Code of Amity' (conducive to harmonious within-group cooperation), and the other the 'Code of Enmity' (conducive to constant between-group enmity and revenge). Sumner (1906; 1911), who later coined the term 'ethnocentrism' for this dual code of conduct, heavily implicated ethnocentrism, and its collateral xenophobia, in the evolution of warfare. In his Folkways, Sumner (1906), echoing Spencer and Bagehot, writes: "The exigencies of war with outsiders are what make peace inside, lest internal discord should weaken the in-group for war. The exigencies also make government and law in the in-group, in order to prevent quarrels and enforce discipline". Subsequently, Sumner (1911) notes that "Perhaps nine-tenths of all the names given by savage tribes to themselves mean 'men', 'the only men', or 'men of men'; that is, 'We are men, the rest are something else'... Religion has always intensified ethnocentrism; the adherents of a religion always think themselves the chosen people, or else they think that their god is superior to all others, which amounts to the same thing (Sumner, 1911). In his Folkways, Sumner (1906) had already emphasized this superiority-delusional aspect of ethnocentrism, which he regarded as universal, in describing it as "this view of things in which one's own group is the center of everything, and all others are scaled and rated with reference to it... Each group nourishes its own pride and vanity, boasts itself superior, exalts its own divinities, and looks with contempt on outsiders". The next author, after Sumner, to elaborate the theme of ethnocentrism in relation to primitive warfare was Davie (1929), who sketched a truly Hobbesian picture of the 'savage' world, pointing out that the relation of primitive groups to one another is one of isolation, suspicion, hostility and war; a status hostilis, if not a regular status belli. Yet within the tribe the common interest against every other tribe compels its members to unite for self-preservation. "Thus a distinction arises between one's own tribe - the 'in-group' - and other tribes - the 'out-group'; and between the members of the first peace and cooperation are essential, whereas their inbred sentiment toward all outsiders is one of hatred and hostility. These two relations are correlative". Thus Davie did not add much to Sumner's arguments in terms of theoretical sophistication. He did, however, summarize the then available ethnological evidence from all over the world. In the accounts of contemporary anthropologists, the theme or Leitmotif of ethnocentrism, whether implicit or explicit, is clearly recognizable (e.g., Murphy, 1957, 1960; Rappaport, 1968; Koch, 1974; Huber, 1975; Chagnon, 1977; Herdt, 1981; Paula Brown, 1982; Knauft, 1983; among many others). The Yanomanö fierceness, for example, derives, at least in part, from their belief that they were the first, finest and most refined form of man to inhabit the earth, and that all other peoples are a degeneration from their pure stock (Keegan, 1993: 97). Another Amazonian people, the Mundurucu (who waged headhunting raids against all of their neigbors) , consider other people to be on the same level as their principal game food, the peccary. Their word for enemy (pariwat) merely meant any group that was not Mundurucu (Murphy, 1957, 1960). Such a state of affairs has resulted in the isolation of many primitive peoples, their ignorance of one another, and the great variation in their mores and languages. As Bigelow (1972) suggests: "When they cannot understand one another beyond the level of smiles and grunts and blatant gestures, people rarely achieve deep cultural bonds and common loyalties". Sumner's thesis has, by now, been supported by a substantial body of evidence (e.g., Murdock, 1949; Catton, 1961; LeVine & Campbell, 1972; Van den Berghe, 1981; Reynolds, Falger & Vine, 1987; Shaw & Wong, 1989; A. Flohr, 1994). By Eric Smith
Ethnocentrism is the viewpoint that one's ethnic group is the center of everything, against which all other groups are judged. Within culture, language, behaviour, customs, and religion can be a basis for ethnic distinctions, and sub-divisions.
Ethnocentriciy: characterized by or based on the attitude that one's own group is superior. (Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary)
[edit] Ethnocentrism and the surrounding biases
Anthropologists often immerse themselves in a distant culture in order to get a better feeling of the beliefs, views, and ideas present in a society. They attempt to get an emic (inside) view of the society. Unfortunately however, many of these anthropologists, approach the culture with an ethnocentric viewpoint.
Ethnocentrism as defined by Haviland is
- “the belief that one’s own culture is superior in every way to all others�? (Haviland, 1991/2001)
It is a belief validated by the culture’s own criteria for superiority. Even when cultures or individual members of cultures assimilate “foreign�? objects, practices or ideas, the outgroup origins of the same are de-emphasized and quickly and conveniently forgotten.
Garcia (1991) in a much more comprehensive definition places ethnocentrism on a continuum that ranges from cultural degradation to cultural pride to cultural chauvinism, with cultural chauvinism being the extreme aspect of ethnocentrism cited in the Haviland definition. Cultural degradation, the other extreme, is a “reaction or a defense mechanism to cultural chauvinism�? (Garcia, 1991, p. 104).
Cultural pride, also an aspect of ethnocentrism, is
- an important state from which can emerge such positives as self-esteem, group identity, group solidarity, and group cohesion.
Before pursuing a discussion of ethnocentrism it is necessary to define several types of “society,�? ethnic groups or microcultures as well as make some distinctions between different types of societies and their respective cultures, microcultures and subcultures.
Society can be defined as
- "A group of people occupying a specific locality, who are dependent on each other for survival and who share a common culture" (Haviland p. 280).
Culture is a fundamental element of any society. It is
- the body of beliefs, values and attitudes which define the relationships [family, region, social, political, economic, legal etc.] which hold a society together (social structure), and gives the society a group identity.
Some societies are homogenous with very little variation in the standards held by its various subgroups and in exhibited behavior patterns which accord with common cultural prescriptions. Other societies have a marked degree of variation in the standards and behaviors of some of their subgroups. These societies are called pluralistic societies.
By Eric Smith
What is ethnocentrism? Ethnocentrism is when someone judges others from their own viewpoint without taking their culture into account. The opposite of enthrocentrism is relativism, when you feel that someone believes what they believe because they learned it as such.
There are four types of biases which are present in ethnocentrism:
Subjective bias- When experiences of the observer, or their point of view, influence their outlook on a culture.
Evaluative bias- When the observer judges what is good or bad, right or wrong, based on their own culture beliefs, not those of the host culture.
Cognitive bias- When the observer does not recognize that different words, acts, or symbols have a different meaning that what they do in their own culture.
Conceptual bias- When the observer does not recognize that the host culture has different world views than their own.
Let us take the example of ethnologist Charles Wagley, who studied the Tapirapé Indians of central Brazil. In this culture, the climate was harsh, and food was limited, also the society was struggling to preserve the gene pool. As a result, there were strict rules enforced on how many children couples could have, and what sex the children could be. When an “accidental�? child was born, that child was killed, also known as infanticide. If Wagley had been ethnocentric, he would have described this as cruel and inhumane. Instead, he explained the societal tolerance of the practice, and avoided subjective bias. http://faculty.mdc.edu/jmcnair/Joe7pages/Ethnocentrism%20and%20Surrounding%20biases.ht
Bias is also present in other kinds of research, such as medicine. It is for this reason that blind testing is done, where the subject is unaware if they have they have the placebo or test drug. Double-blind testing is often used to avoid the bias of the doctor, this is where neither doctor nor patient are aware if they are in the control or experimental group.
Through awareness and compensation, biases and ethnocentrism can be avoided. It is extremely difficult in anthropology, where many things are subjective, however it can be accomplished. Operational definitions are often helpful, for they set rigid circumstances through which thoughts can be described.
[edit] History of the Term
Ethnocentrism came into popular language in the 19th century. It originally meant simply a belief in the cultural superiority of one’s own ethnic group. It was not until 1906 that William Graham Sumner formalized the term into a social science concept. It soon gained wide usage throughout the social sciences. Sumner, a Yale University Professor of Political and Social Science, both broadened the concept and advanced a hypothesis. He held ethnocentrism to describe a view by “…which one’s own group is the center of everything, and all others are scaled and rated in reference to it.�? (Sumner, 1906, p. 13) In his view, ethnocentrism has two components: one is an exaggeration of the ingroup’s cultural superiority, the other a disparagement of all outgroup cultures. Sumner held these two components to be two sides of the same coin. This contention forms the Sumner hypothesis: hostility toward outgroups is a direct function of an ingroup’s sense of superiority. (Retrieved May 03, 2005, from http://208.164.121.55/reference/SOME/Outlines/ethnocentrism.htm)
"To address the deeper issues involved in ethnocentrism calls for a more explicit definition. In this sense, ethnocentrism can be defined as: making false assumptions about others' ways based on our own limited experience. The key word is assumptions, because we are not even aware that we are being ethnocentric... we don't understand that we don't understand."
Kathryn Milner Sources Webster's Collegiate Dictionary www.iupui.edu/~anthkb/ethnocen.htm
[edit] So what can we do about ethnocentrism?
Addressing ethnocentrism is not a matter of trying not to be ethnocentric. This is an impossible task, since we will never experience every life situation of everyone around the world. We will always have our assumptions about life based on our existing limited experience. So a much more productive approach is to catch ourselves when we are being ethnocentric and to control for this bias as we seek to develop better understandings.
In science, grounded understandings are not developed from the absence of biases, but rather the recognition and control of biases. The scientific process helps us have a clearer view of what we do understand in the context of what we do not understand. Ethnocentrism is a bias that keeps us from such understandings of other people's life experience, but it is possible to recognize this bias and control for it... so that we can go on to develop more valid and balanced understandings. This calls for us to develop our learning skills, but it can be done. Many of us know people who have moved to other societies and have learned to become functional in their new social settings, evidence that it is possible to develop more grounded understandings. Anthropologists, of course, have worked on systematically developing these skills for well over a century.
- The first step in developing more balanced understandings is to recognize that we do not understand, that we are falsely assuming something that is not the case and is out of context. How can we consciously become aware of something that is happening subconsciously? In this case, how can we know when we are being biased?
One of the most effective means for recognizing that ethnocentrism is inhibiting our understandings is to watch our reactions. Reactions tell us that we are assuming something and that our assumptions are not working.
We can always observe our own reactions. When we have negative reactions towards others (such as thinking "that doesn't make sense" or "that's wrong," or feeling offended or confused, etc.), these are clues that our assumptions are not working in the situation. For example, we may feel Cree Indians are "unfriendly" because they are often nonexpressive in social situations, but recognizing our reaction can provide an opportunity to better understand Cree values on self-control which can be adaptive when a small family group has to be self-sufficient in a winter camp far from others' help. Observing our positive reactions towards others (such as thinking "that's really nice" or "that's wonderful," or feeling pleased or satisfied) can also help us to be aware that we are not understanding. For example, Anglos frequently think the Inuit are "happy" and "friendly" because they smile a lot in social situations, but recognizing this reaction can provide an opportunity to better understand Inuit social values which are adaptive where subsistence is based on cooperative hunting.
We can also observe the reactions of the members of the other culture. If we blissfully go on in our misconceptions but they don't respond the way we would, this is also an important clue that our assumptions are not working in the situation. Again, their reactions may be both positive and negative. For example, if a Cree shows gratification when we give him a gift, recognizing his reaction can provide an opportunity to better understand adaptive Cree values on economic leveling (rather than assuming that our "generosity" has been duly recognized). Also, if an Inuk responds to our inquiry about how to keep our shoulders warm while spending weeks on a mid-winter hunting trip with a surprised "You mean you want to be warm all over?", recognizing his reaction can provide an opportunity to better understand Inuit concepts of self and the environment (rather than providing us with the desired "answer" to maintaining our own concept of bodily comfort).
In general, reactions tell us first about us. Why do we think people should be "friendly"? should appreciate material goods? should feel warm all over? When we refer to others as "primitive" or "superstitious," what are we saying about our own premises that we value in life? When we idealize others as being "simple" or "not wasting anything," what are we saying about the problems we perceive in our own way of life? When others consider us as "technologically skilled" or "selfish," what does this say about us that we may never have realized? Cross-cultural encounters revealing more about our own perspectives, values, and emotional investments than about others, and so provide us unique opportunities to learn more about ourselves.
- Once we realize that we are not understanding, we are now in a better position to seek more valid and balanced understandings. Asking two sets of questions (first to ourselves) can help provide more insights into life experience in their context:
1) What are the meanings of their behavior and situation? (In anthropological terms, what is their emic experience?) This includes both their cognitive views and their emotional feelings. This essentially involves inquiring about their perspectives on their own life experience, including specific cognitive views about colors and the structure of the Universe, feelings about social relationships and proper behavior, and every other area of cultural life. Also, observing what they are not ready to talk about can open new insights about their introspection and sense of self or about why they consider certain rituals to be secret. We need to keep in mind that there are many meanings of any given behavior and that these are often very deep in people's subconscious and are often difficult to put into words. (For instance, how would we explain to someone from another culture what "freedom" means to Americans? Usually it is differences in meanings that are the basis of ethnocentrism.)
2) What are the adaptive functions of the behavior and situation? (In anthropological terms, what is their etic experience?) This is the question which is usually not asked on a common level, yet is the one that can provide the greatest insights and understandings. For example, some Westerners may be willing to accept that the belief some peoples have about supernatural witchcraft being the cause illness is meaningful to them, rather than simply writing this off as "superstitious." But they may fail to consider that such beliefs have important functions in these groups, such as defining norms of "good" behavior by contrasting these with what a "witch" does and as controlling deviance because people are afraid of being accused of being a witch if they step out of accepted boundaries of behavior. If we did not ask about the functions of beliefs in witchcraft, we would never develop insights like understanding that such views can help promote constructive behavior that helps the whole group adapt. A particular meaning may have an important function in another area of life, such as a religious belief in witchcraft having an important social function. We also need to keep in mind that there are many functions of any given cultural practice, including biological, economic, social, psychological, and ecological functions that help a group adapt to life challenges. "What are the adaptive functions?" is the question that is generally not asked, but which usually leads to the greatest insights into others' cultural behavior.
Asking about the meanings and functions of behavior is not a matter of "insiders" or "outsiders," however. We can analyze the meanings of our own behavior, which are highly complex and normally seated deeply in our subconscious, as with our idea of "freedom." We can also analyze the functions of our own behavior. For example, why is "freedom" such as important American value? how does it help us adapt? Sometimes outsiders can see things we don't usually see because they are contrast our behavior with others' ways, but being an insider does not preclude members of any group from understanding their own behavior.
When we start asking about how others' ways are meaningful and functional to its participants, we come to realize that there are many valid ways in which human beings can experience life.
In this process, it is important to remember that we are the learners. We do not know, and that is why we are seeking to develop better understandings. They are the ones who do know what their life experience is like, and we are asking them to help us understand. If we appreciate that their life experience can be as valid for them as ours is for us, acknowledge that we may be misunderstanding, and ask them to help us understand, most people are more than willing to help us understand better. (This is a lesson I learned primarily from the Inuit, and many others have contributed to it since.)
Perhaps no one can ever have complete understanding of another people, without fully experiencing everything they experience. But this does not mean we cannot develop a functional understanding, to interact successfully with others. The many immigrants who have become functional members of our society demonstrate this is possible, as well as anthropologists and others who have become functional members of other groups. One goal that is achievable, however, is to make sure that what we what we do understanding is valid and balanced in the context of recognizing what we do not understand. By Eric Smith
[edit] Application in classrooms and similar settings
Teachers who Understand
In the text Affirming Diversity, Neito defines multicultural education as a process of comprehensive school reform and basic education for all students. It challenges and rejects racism and other forms of discrimination in schools and society and accepts and affirms the pluralism (ethnic, racial, linguistic, religious, economic, gender and sexual orientation, among other) that students, their teachers reflect. Multicultural education permeates the school curriculum and instructional strategies, as well as the interactions among teacher, students and families, and the very way that schools conceptualize the nature of teaching and learning. Because it uses critical pedagogy as its underlying philosophy and focuses on knowledge reflection, and action as the basis of social change, multicultural education promotes democratic principles of social justice. What if students are dealing with other issues such as socio-economic factors that may affect them in the classroom?
When dealing with socioeconomic of students in schoolteachers must remember that ethnicity and culture research suggests that all three factors may be interwoven in a complex social structure that has to be identified. The research also offers helpful suggestions that all teachers should recognize. When studying race, class, and ethnicity, social scientists need to examine generalization that may be made about the middle class. There also needs to be more comprehensive studies that are related to race, class and cognitive styles. The implication for the teachers are that teachers need to understand that the characteristics of ethnic groups and socioeconomic status can aid in understanding groups but not individual differences. This being the case, teachers should incorporate a variety of teaching styles and content that will appeal to a diverse student population.
By Eric Smith
). Teachers who understand the preferred style of students can use this knowledge to design and plan instruction that will encourage students to experiment with a wider repertoire of learning approaches. We must also keep in mind that these strategies should not be segregated for any particular group. Irvine suggests that all children, regardless of race, would benefit from active and stimulating teaching approaches. (Irvine, 1995) Here are several examples of effective suggestions offered by the research on implementation of effective teaching strategies for students of color.
I. For African Americans: Develop a strong personal relationship with the student. Deliver clear and direct Verbal instructions; Develop advance organizers in highly structured presentation material and; Arrange Classroom seating so students are physically close to teachers. (Clarkson, 1983)
II. Hispanics may also benefit from cooperative learning, curriculum humanized through humor, fantasy, or Drama; Use personalized rewards, modeling, informal class discussions; Global emphasis on concepts Rather than details; also explicit rules regarding classroom behavior. (Ramirez & Castaneda, 1974)
III. For American Indian students, avoid highlights of individual success; accept silence; reduce lecturing; De-emphasize competition; Use personal teaching style; Use whole language approach and; Minimal Teacher direction. (Sawyer, 1991)
• Discuss the following questions with students (Retrieved May 03, 2005, from http://www.uvm.edu/~culture/site/frameset/frameset_ethnocentrism.html)
1. Why did most of us prefer the same things? This leads to the definition of ethnocentrism. “Ethnocentrism is the tendency for people to feel their culture, religion, race or nation is superior, and to judge others by one's own frame of reference.�?
2. How does ethnocentrism develop?
3. Is any one choice really better than another? The teacher should accept the variety of responses and attempt to zero in on the second choices as being more Japanese in nature. Be sure to point out that not all Japanese or all Americans will have the same preferences.
4. Why might there be a variety of preferences even within one culture? Explain that people in any culture are individuals, and that their personal preferences will fall along a continuum, not all at one extreme.
5. Are there any dangers to ethnocentric attitudes in a world that is becoming increasingly interdependent?
6. How can ethnocentrism be combated?
[edit] Possible Lesson Plan
Eric Dawes Smith
African American History Through Music
Introductory Statements A. The project is designed for students who are in grades 4-7. B. The project will be set up in three ninety-minute sessions and will expose students to the history, geography, culture, and heartbeat of the native Africans to present day African Americans. C. The unit can be adapted to include students in upper grade levels by changing some of the standards (i.e. more writing along with a greater concentration on the middle passage).
II. Objectives A. After participating in class discussion on “West Africa: An Introduction to the Soul.�? The student will be able to identify countries from, the Caribbean and the United States. B. After students have participated in worksheets and class discussion they will be able to identify and discuss African American musical achievements along with listening to the progression of African American Music.
II.Specific Skills A. After the introduction of Africa, students will be able to identify Senegal, Guinea, Sierra Leon, Liberia, The Ivory Coast, Ghana, Togo, Benin, and Nigeria on a map. B. After having class discussion students will be able to describe the Middle Passage. C. After each ninety minute session, students will be able use a moment of reflection, (5-10 minutes), and write about their experiences in journal form.
IV. Content Outline A. West Africa (mapping and identification) 1. Learning location 2. Learning map skills
B. Middle passage- Better understanding of World history and impact on the people and the music that would come out of it. C. To America 1. Introduce poetry: From Slavery to Rap. 2. Expose students to various musical forms of the African American experience. 3. Review History, Facts, and People
D. Music 1. Aids in the transition between activities 2. Expose students to the “Roots�? of the music and where it came from.
E. Games (included in activity packet) F. Reflection 1. To get feedback and review the days activities. 2. Students practice their writing skills
V. Activities A. Initial Activity 1. Introduce students to maps of Africa and use identification. Locate West Africa, the Caribbean, and the United States. Students are encouraged to highlight their own maps as they follow along. 2. Create an on-going time line. This activity is on going. When students think that they have found, heard, or discussed important fact, people, or events, they can identify it on the time line.
B. Developmental Activities 1. Tracing maps 2. Understanding time lines. From 1619 to the present. 3. Discuss the reading from African American musical experience 4. Games: motor skills and helping students identify with other regions of the world.
C. Summarizing Activity 1. Reflection: students should gather in small groups and discuss the day’s events and write down their feeling for the day in their journals. 2. Students should review and complete homework assignments
Daily Lesson Plan
Day One Step One 1. Setting the tone (an introduction). 2. Introduction of Music, the Lion King 3. Use a new quote daily. “Our children may learn about their heroes of the past. Our task is to make ourselves architects of the future.�? Jomo Keny Atta
Step Two: Mapping 1. Students should be situated were every can see. 2. Students should follow along and identify countries 3. Mapping countries: See page one. 4. Using tracing paper, students trace and label the countries of West Africa.
Step Three: Introduction of the Middle Passage with a song (track 2 on the CD) 1. Define Middle Passage 2. Describe the voyage and conditions 3. Hold class discussion and get student feedback
Step Four: Time Line (Please remember that the goal is progressive so all time lines should be readily accessible.
Day Two Step One 1. Review from past day. 2. Place Quote on the Board He who hate, hates himself. Zulu Proverb 3. Introduce topic: Slavery and Jazz
Introduce poem 1. Students should begin to make connections with the music and text. 2. Students exposed to other form of Literature. 3. Connection between fact, people and events
Step Two: Begin discussion Packet of material is enclosed. Try to get to the Jazz section to introduce Coltrane Please make sure that students are keeping up with their time lines. This is a great opportunity to check student work. Games 1. Transition and oral history 2. Realizing the contribution of Africans and African Americans in music.
Reflection Same as day one. Students should be eager to lead the discussion. If this does not occur, help students along with subtle suggestions.
Day Three I. Review from day before. II. Q of the Day (The road to freedom is filled with thrones and fire, yet happy is he who follows it. -Aminu Kano) III. Song (CD #4) IV. Activity A. Resume and complete Jazz B. Use games C. Reflection V. Closing Activities
Celebrate by hanging display, timelines, project, and journals trough tout the classroom Students may want too have prizes, games, or a closing celebration. Help plan and implement student party.
The instructor can use as little or as much of the material that are mentioned. Please try and follow the material in the packet to the best of your ability. There are several games and activities enclosed as well. Please note that this can also be adapted to be a much longer lesson.
[edit] Evidence of effectiveness
We would begin in our schools by creating culturally compatible classrooms. The goals of this case attempt to eliminate racism, sexism, and prejudice while providing equal educational opportunities for all students. Ronald Tharp states, “When schools are changed, children’s experiences and achievement also change. (Hoy& Hoy, 2002). Tharp outlines several dimensions of the classroom that can be tailored to fit the needs of students’ cultural diversity, which are, as followed: social organizations, learning styles, and participation structure. Please note that as it concerns the issue of race, ethnicity and socioeconomic status are often interchangeable but do not have to be absolute.
In the first dimension of social organizations educators should take the students social structure into account when developing programs that will impact the students learning performance. What works for one group of students does not mean it will work for all individuals. There is a fine example of schools using culture to make the learning environment more conduce to the learners in the KEEP Study and the Rough Rock Program (may see details in midterm question three). The Keep study would use Hawaiian cultural traits to enhance the learning experience. The program would infuse on the cultural norms of collaboration and cooperation in learning while the Rough Rock Program would have to adjust its tactics. The Native American students were culturally socialized to have activities that were more solitary and independent. When we take students cultural background into account will help teachers to appreciate students’ personal cultural knowledge thereby using the student’s prior in teaching. This impact of recognizing a student’s social organization can also help us to begin to see the differences in learning styles. By Eric Smith
[edit] Critics and their rationale
[edit] Alternative explanations due to Diversity considerations
[edit] Signed "life experiences", testimonies and stories
As a Geography teacher I am constantly trying to show my students that there are people out there who are different and different isn't necesarily bad. My students think every other country is poor and people don't have anything and are not smart. I love showing them all of the neat stuff about other cultures and how other people can actually do things better than Americans. This really opens up their eyes. B. Moore
I have heard of schools which offer ethnocentric curriculum and am interested in knowing how popular they are. Also what are the different ethnicities that are present in the ethnocentric curriculum? Lily Jimenez
I think the best way to teach to all cultures is to immerse yourself in a different culture for a while. A few years ago I had the opportunity to live and work in northern Quebec and participate in a different culture than my own. I highly reccommend doing the same, and would like to try living in another culture at any time. It is only then that you truly understand how much of your culture you take for granted. With that knowledge, it is easier to accommodate other cultures.-G. Vigneron
You will find more information on muliculrual curriculum. It is very popular right now. But we as adecators must be sure that we are teaching it effectively. Sonja Neito does a fine job and offers some really good examples.
When dealing with issues like ethnocentricism I think it is important that instructors do not try to eliminate the differences between cultures/ ethnic groups. Pretending that all people are the same does not help the situation - it is understanding, accepting, and celebrating other cultures that should be strived for. --J. Fritts
There is actually a whole branch of study called ethnomathematics, and I'm sure other disciplines have something similar. It examines mathematics through the eyes of not only the "dead Greek men" who are traditionally given credit for it, but also for the men and women of all cultures, from the distinguished to the "primitive" who developed mathematics in a variety of contexts. It seems like multicultural education is easier when there is one primary "minority" group. That way the teacher can slowly become an expert on one particular group (which takes a lot of time and research) and yet it doesn't seem like one group is being favored over another. I also think it is really good for white students to have this type of education, as it helps them to be less one-sided and have a better understanding and appreciation for all the people of the world. -- Emily Cox
I found this a very interesting entry and one that has great potential to inspire conversation and further research. I know that in anthropolgy, there has been a real shift in the past twenty years to admitting, recognizing, and then moving beyond the inevitable cultural and social bias of the anthropologist. Instead of behaving as if one can truly be an unbiased, objective observer, most studies now begin with a paragraph that "places" the researcher in a time, environment, and perspective that may influence their work. Interestingly, I think that identifying and considering potential bias actually may help the researcher be more effective. One nice example of this contextualization of (and then moving on from) bias is in Beyond Great Walls: Environment, Identity, and Development on the Chinese Grasslands of Inner Mongolia by Dee Mack Williams. April Spisak
This past summer, I had the opportunity to study abroad in Granada, Spain. Prior to this experience, I had never truly experienced another culture. Even though my previous knowledge about other cultures was limited, I never once had the opinion that the United States of America was better than any other country. However, while I was in Spain, I was confronted with several Americans who did have this opinion. This trip gave me a greater appreciation for other cultures and I will never think of my country as being superior to others. Even though I have lived in the United States my entire life, I still find aspects of Spain that I appreciate more than what I have here. -Holly E.
In my economics class we discuss Ethnocentricity when discussing Capitalist society vs. Command economy. Many of the students can not comprehend outside of their reality why a country would choose anything other than capitalistic economies. It is the job of the teacher to give examples and explanations of how and why different cultures like command economies can be helpful and how the US for one mimics them in times of need. At times of war the US acts very much like a command economy, which is against the principles of the capitalistic economy and Adam Smith. Nic D.
[edit] References and other links of interest
An interesting source with links about ethnocentricity isResources for Understanding and Correcting Ethnocentric Behavior
