Conflict resolution
From WikEd
The Nature of Conflict
Conflict is the perceived incompatibility of Goals, Actions, and/or Outcomes (GAO), within a person or between two or more people. (Here, "GAO" will signify "Goals, Actions, and/or Outcomes")
Four Basic Categories of Conflict
• Intrapersonal [within a person]- Incompatibilities within a person's cognitive-informational processing system having to do with Goals, Actions, Outcomes.
• Interpersonal [between people]- Incompatibilities between the GAO's of two, or a few, people
• Intragroup – [within a group]- Incompatibilities between two or more people in a group concerning the GAO's of the individuals, and those of the group. It can also be an incompatibility between the GAO of an individual and those of a group.
• Intergroup – [between groups]- Incompatibilities between various members whose GAO's are incompatible with each other, but are consistent with those of their respective groups.
("Intra"=within; "Intrapersonal"= within a person "Intragroup"=within a group "Inter"=between; "Interpersonal"=between people "Intergroup"=between groups)
For more information, see the WikEd conflict page.
Resolution Strategies
• Gather new information: To process new information that helps an individual or group modify their incompatible Goals, Actions, and/or Outcomes, or perceptions of them. (Upon gaining new information, people in conflict may realize that they are not in conflict after all, or need not be.)
• Therapy: To engage the services of a trained professional to help an individual or group understand their GAO's.
• Fight: To win by imposing one's point of view at the expense of the other disputant's.
• Flight: To lose by strategically opting out of the conflict because the calculated risks of fight (or other strategies) are too high.
• Avoidance: To postpone until a later time dealing with the conflict in anticipation of some type of resolution which is not eminently available.
• Negotiation: Disputants discuss in a rather formal way, the incompatible GAO's between two individuals or groups with the express intent of understanding each other's viewpoints, and reaching a win-win solution. Negotiation is like Mediation without the 3rd party. Communication is key in this method.
• Mediation: When a neutral third party facilitates the negotiation process so that power, articulation and knowledge differences are neutralized. There are four main types of meditation (see next section).
• Arbitration: When a neutral third party directs the negotiation process and renders a "fair" solution to the conflict. (This sort of directive strategy is often used by teachers.)
• Litigation: When the disputants empower the justice system to render a solution to their conflicts. Most of the time, the system is so complicated that each disputant must engage an attorney to represent his/her side of the conflict. Most conflicts are resolved by negotiation between the attorneys; only about 5% of cases are left to a judge or jury to decide.
In these final two strategies, arbitration and litigation, disputants give up their power of negotiation to an attorney.
Types of Mediation
•Facilitative: In this first and most basic style of mediation, the "mediator structures a process to assist the parties in reaching a mutually agreeable resolution. The mediator asks questions; validates and normalizes parties' points of view; searches for interests underneath the positions taken by parties; and assists the parties in finding and analyzing options for resolution. The mediator does not make recommendations to the parties, give his or her own advice or opinion as to the outcome of the case, or predict what a court would do in the case. The mediator is in charge of the process, while the parties are in charge of the outcome." Facilitative mediation was the only style that existed in the 1960’s and 70’s.
•Evaluative: In Evaluative Mediation, the mediator plays a much more direct role in the outcome of the dispute. Generally used in legal situations, evaluative mediators meet with parties separately and assist them in reaching a resolution by pointing out the weaknesses of their cases, predicting what a judge or jury would be likely to do, and making recommendations to the parties as to the outcome of the issues. Evaluative mediators are concerned with the legal rights of the parties rather than their needs and interests, and evaluate based on legal concepts of fairness. Evaluative mediation was developed in the 1980’s as a result of the increased number of court-ordered and court-referenced mediations.
•Transformative: The transformative mediator uses the modes of the facilitative style but structures the mediation so that disputants recognize each other’s needs, interests, values, and points of view, in order to reach a mutually agreed upon resolution. By taking responsibility for their disputes and the resolutions, the two parties can transform their relationship and leave the mediation feeling their voices have been heard, understood, and respected. An over-reaching goal is a “long-lasting change in how the disputants approach and deal with conflict” (Foster). The mediator attempts to remain impartial throughout the proceedings, attempting to bring “empowerment and recognition to the resolution process, not opinions or advice” (Foster). Transformative mediation is a product of the mid 1990’s. When done well, transformative mediation is often the most productive method in schools.
•Narrative: More of a mediation technique within Facilitative or Transformative Mediation than a fully formed mediation style, Narrative Mediation uses storytelling to get disputants to view the conflict from a distance and imagine what it would be like if the conflict was not an issue between them. The parties then work with the mediator to turn this story into a contract and/or a reality.
Conflict Resolution in Schools
Conflict resoultion is a skill that is important to teach students and to model for them. Children and adults who are successful at finding a solution to their problems are better able to cope in all areas of their lives.
Conflict resolution in today's schools often happens under the umbrulla of peer mediation or peaceable schools programs.
Teaching conflict resolution does not just lead to more peaceful and productive schools. It also gives students, and adults, skills to handle conflict without the use of violence. Conflict resolution programs emphasize taking personal responsibility for one's own actions and that the community should work together to prevent violence and advertise alternatives.
Conflict resolution is about empowering students to choose wisely and to act with everyone's best interest in mind.
For more information please see: Wikipedia's "Conflict Resolution" and Wikipedia's "Mediation"
Wisdom on Conflict Resolution
"[Conflict is] a collision occurring between teacher and student where their behaviors interfere with each other’s attainment of their own needs, and thus both parties own the problem." - Thomas Gordon, creator of Teacher Effectiveness Training (T.E.T.), as quoted in Wolfgang (2001)
"Communicating is a process whereby each party understands what the other has to say and formulates responsive messages in a way to create further understanding" (Wolfgang, 207).
"There are some interpersonal conflicts you really need to win, by fighting if necessary, and there are some you really need to lose."
"Conflict in the classroom is an opportunity to learn that there's more to conflict resolution than fight or flight."-Tom Anderson
Diversity Issues
Conflict resolution and mediation techniques have been broadened through the use of technology. For students intimidated by face-to-face confrontation, instant message style chats and internet phone mediation is a forum that is gaining popularity. This has the potential to provide a safe and secure way for people to resolve conflicts who may have issues with confrontation.
Personal Testimonies
The high school I attended had peer mediation as one of its many programs. I don't know how successful this conflict resolution program has been elsewhere, but it was a complete flop at my school! It was a joke among students whenever a fight or arguement broke out. "Uh-oh! Better take that to peer mediation!" No one utilized the program because of the shame involved in having to get one of your own peers to help you work out your problems. Perhaps other schools have had more success in taking the shame out of this, but students at my school were too prideful to admit when they needed help. The only time the program was used was when assigned as a part of discipline by the administration. That made it even more a negative program among the students. I will be interested to hear if this is successful in other places. --Elizabeth Giger
I can remember having peer mediation in my junior high and high school. Junior high is particularly memorable for me though. I remember a lot of the girls getting into silly little tiffs so that they could go see a mediator and get out of class for a little while. I was never directly involved in peer mediation, so I wonder how effective it was for those students that were actually in need of some conflict resolution. I can't say I would put too much faith in the program in my junior high. --NMF
In the elementary school where I taught we too had peer mediation. It seemed to work with the elementary students because usually their problems were somewhat minor. We only had a few fifth and sixth graders who were trained and who would handle the problems. One thing I think that it did was get the students who were having problems to sit down with each other and at least listen. Usually it would work out because they had misinterpreted the problem to begin with. --S.Morrisette
The most successful ways schools have dealt with conflict is through the use of peer mediation. --Carole Johnson
The middle school I work in has a peer mediation program in place, but I fear that it is underutilized by students. Those who do submit mediation requests often do so at the thought of missing classes. I just don't think that this age group has the maturity that is necessary to deal with the kinds of problems they face on their own. The problems of youth today seem far more complex then they were even ten years ago when I was in middle school. --S. Borkgren
I know of no conflict resolution programs or plans at our district. When I approached a school counselor about it, I was asked if I wanted to begin one. Yikes! I have mentored students in the past, and that helped prevent conflicts in the first place. And the school does have an intervention program for students called the Student Assistance Program. Right now any real conflict resolution would have to go through our guidance department. --M. Uhls
When I was in junior high school, our principal taught a class called "I Can" for a few years. The class would role-play and learn coping and communication skills. Unfortunately, he had to stop teaching that class to make room for other classes because school enrollment was increasing. Our class and the class before ours were the only classes to receive conflict resolution techniques. After we graduated from high school, teachers said they were going to miss our class because we were such a good class. I bet because of the "I Can" program, our class learned how to get along better with each other and other classes, which reduced problems. P. Graham
My junior high school implemented a peer mediation program, but for some reason that is unknown to me now, it was viewed as really uncool to participate in it. Because of this, the program accomplished basically nothing because those who tried to take someone to peer mediation were just bullied more because of it. Maybe it was just because it was new to the school that this happened, but schools need to be equipped to make the program desirable to its students. - A. Barkauski
THe junior high I attended and the high school I teach at, attempted to implement a peer mediation program. At the junior high level it was very unsuccessful because the "peer mediators" would inform anyone who would listen exactly what when on during the sessions. No one with any real problems would agree to participate because of the lack of privacy. At our high school it was overseen by a councler to help the sessions progress in a positive way. They councelers ended up running the session and the peer mediator really didn't do much at all. I understand the importance of conflict resolution but in my experience peer mediation is not the answer! -L. Gowler
I teach at a small rural high school and I have a difficult time seeing peer mediation working. The students have too many personal relationships with other students to be objective. Our student council is in charge of the parking lots and they are supposed to issue tickets to students without proper parking passes and I know that this is rarely done because they don't want to be the bad guy. I do like the idea of mediation and perhaps, under adult supervision, mediation could be very effective. Rita Grunloh
In training for a group home position fresh out of college, I got a chance to experience formal conflict resolution training. Transformative was actually mentioned and dwelt upon the most as the preferred strategy for working with the children both in a group and one-on-one in order to bring the disputants back into the flow of the group's activities. Quite surprising to find our group home was so on point with the times (1996-8) with its strategies. As for practicing it in the wild, I can attest to its success, but it assumes that both parties are invesited in resolving the issue, when one or the other more than likely is caught in a blaming or avoidance cycle it is more difficult to rein them in to a resolution that is fair. It takes patience and impartiality, and that can try the best of mediators sometimes! -- D. Melone
International Conflict Management
Conflict resolution happens on the largest scale between feuding nation states. The most serious types of conflicts, Intractable/Enduring conflicts, are defined by Bercovich and Regan as conflicts that have lasted at least 15 or 20 years and have had cycles of peace and violence, containing at least 5 militarized disputes. For example, China and the USA had a rivalry lasting from 1949 to 1969, and 20 conflict management efforts occurred. Greece and Turkey's rivalry from 1955 to 1988 endured 91 conflict management efforts.
- For the complete list between 1945 and 1990, go to The Structure of International Conflict Management
Mediation on these scales is done with multiple mediators on different levels simultaneously. Mediators can be:
-High ranking individuals
-Countries (Track I Diplomacy)
-Institutions, Organizations, and lower-ranking individuals (Track II and Multi-Track Diplomacy)
While individuals may have some degree of impartiality, on the whole, international mediators only get involved because they have something at stake in the 3rd party's dispute. Therefore, international mediation is generally without the quality of an impartial mediator.
- What are these alleged "Tracks" of Diplomacy, you say? Read on, my friend, read on....
The Tracks of Diplomacy
Track I: Official Government Diplomacy: Negotiation, mediation, gathering new information (a.k.a. "fact-finding missions), international condemnations, and/or sanctions, all orchestrated by official 3rd parties.
Track II: "Citizen" Diplomacy: Traditional mediation orchestrated by leaders, legislators, journalists, members of think-tanks, activists, academics, all who have greater freedom because of their role.
Track III: Grass Roots Diplomacy: NGO workers and common people connecting with other common people to gather new information, come to new understanding, create peace at the grass-roots level. People striving for dialogue and peaceful coexistence in communities.
- For change to occur, all these tracks and other influences must be working together simultaneously
Other Tracks: Other tracks or aspects of lower-level diplomacy include: Businesses, Religious organizations, Funding, and Public Opinion/Communication
International Mediation Characteristics
The actual mediation that goes on (Track II diplomacy) usually takes one of the following forms:
1) Communicative/facilitative: The mediator fills a passive role by channeling information and facilitating cooperation. This type of mediation is most like the "facilitative" type listed above.
2) Procedural: The mediator exerts control over the process by determining timing, meeting location, issues on agenda, formality or flexibility of meetings, etc. For example, President Jimmy Carter's meeting with President al-Sadatat of Egypt and Prime Minister Begin of Israel at Camp David in 1978. This type of mediation has characteristics of both facilitative, evaluative, and perhaps even transformative; given that the mediator already has such a stake in the process, it is not hard to imagine the mediator wishing to smooth over personal differences as well.
3) Directive: The mediator shapes the content and nature of outcome by offering incentives, promises of support, or threats of diplomatic sanctions (The "whatever works" method.)
Does it work?
These types of conflict resolution attempts are more commonly referred to as "conflict management" attempts because often a cease fire or temporary settlement is the best one can hope for. Yet while success is less frequent and harder to achieve, international mediation has made some great strides for peace.
Resources and Sources
Other Thoughts and Expert Sources
Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. (1996). Conflict resolution and peer mediation programs in elementary and secondary schools: A review of the research. Review of Educational Research, Winter, Vol. 66, No. 4, pp. 459-506. Also, follow their references to some of the classic pieces about conflict resolution and include them in your topic.
An educational consultant, Betsy Evans, proposes some strategies for responding to problems and conflicts in the Early Childhood Classroom. The strategies include: Approach clamly, Acknowledge children's feelings, Gather information, Restate the problem, Ask children's ideas for solutions and choose one together, and Give follow-up support. For detail content of the strategies, please refer her website. [[1]]
Web Sites About Conflict Resolution
For a summary and comparison of various conflict resolution programs for schools, as well as related links, see Conflict Resolution Education: Four Approaches, from Education-world.com.
For information about conflict resolution in school settings, see The Conflict Resolution/ Peer Mediation Research Project of the University of Florida
For mediation resources, see Mediate.com
A Study in Mediation Styles: A Comparative Analysis of Evaluative and Transformative Styles
Styles of Mediation: Facilitative, Evaluative, and Transformative Mediation, by Zena D. Zumeta, Sept 2000
For a variey of classroom conflict management strategies and ideas, see Conflict Resolution in the Classroom
For an analysis of classroom conflict resolution strategies, see "Preparing Teachers for Conflict Resolution in the Schools" by Kathryn L. Girard.
Web Sites About Peer Mediation
For a teacher-friendly description of peer mediation, see Teacher Talk: Peer Mediation
For an overview of the place of peer mediation in the schools, see Teachernet's "Peer Mediation"
For a variety of peer mediation links, see JALMC Peer Mediation Links
For a through explanation of types of peer mediation sessions and models, see "Solutions Through Peer Mediation" by Leah Davies, M.Ed.
Web Sites About Peaceable Schools
For resources for schools interested in implementing the Peaceable Schools program, see The Center for Peaceable Schools
For an example of Peaceable School implemantation, see Research: Peaceable Schools Initiative
For a description of the Peaceable School movement, see 'Creating the Peaceable School: A Comprehensive Program for Teaching Conflict Resolution' by Peggy Patten
International Conflict Resolution Sources
The Structure of International Conflict Management: An Analysis of the Effects of Intractability and Mediation By Jacob Bercovitch and Patrick M. Regan, printed in The International Journal of Peace Studies, Vol. 4, No. 2
International Mediation and Intractable Conflict by Jacob Bercovitch, for beyondintractability.org
Other References
"Conflict Resolution." Tom Anderson, Glossary, EPSY406 Classroom Management online resource site (CTER)
Conflict Resolution in the Classroom
Foster, Karen. “A Study in Mediation Styles: A Comparative Analysis of Evaluative and Transformative Styles.” Mediate.com. June 2003.
"Preparing Teachers for Conflict Resolution in the Schools" by Kathryn L. Girard.
Marsano, R. J. (2003). Classroom Management That Works. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development
Wolfgang, C.H. (2001). Solving Discipline and Classroom Management Problems. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
