Classical conditioning
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CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Definition:
Noun- conditioning that pairs a neutral stimulus with a stimulus that evokes a reflex: the stimulus that evokes the reflex is given whether or not the conditioned response occurs until eventually the neutral stimulus comes to evoke the reflex.
psychology term: A process of behavior modification by which a subject comes to respond in a desired manner to previously neutral stimulus that has been repeatedly presented along with an unconditioned stimulus that elicits the desired response.
"Classical Conditioning" is defined as "a process of learning by temporal association in which two events that repeatedly occur close together in time become fused in a person's mind and produce the same response" (Comer, 2004)
Classical conditioning is the basis for behavior therapy, a method of changing behavior. Behavior therapists focus on eliminating maladaptive, conditioned reflexes and developing more adaptive ones, often working with people suffering from irrational fears or phobias (Alberto and Troutman, 2003).
Many of our behaviors today are shaped by the pairing of stimuli. Have you ever noticed that certain stimuli, such as the smell of a cologne or perfume, a certain song, a specific day of the year, results in fairly intense emotions? It's not that the smell or the song are the cause of the emotion, but rather what that smell or song has been paired with...perhaps an ex-boyfriend or ex-girlfriend, the death of a loved one, or maybe the day you met your current husband or wife. We make these associations all the time and often don't realize the power that these connections or pairings have on us. But, in fact, we have been classically conditioned.(Psychology 101 online)
Classical conditioning is a very powerful, long lived, authentic form of learning that takes place in school settings all the time. It keeps life from being boring -- in that we are constantly learning new things to smile at, be afraid of and feel comfortable around! (Professor Tom Anderson, University of Illinois, commentary EPSY 400, Sept. 2004)
Pavlov's experiment
Ivan Pavlov's experimental device involved a holding harness for a dog, along with a tube that collected saliva (Comer, 2004). The amount of saliva was then recorded on a revolving cylinder called a kymograph. The entire device could be viewed by the experimenter through one-way glass.
In Pavlov's experiments, he used meat to make dogs salivate. This meat is called the unconditioned stimulus (UCS). The salivation caused by the presence of the meat is called the unconditioned response (UCR). In one of his experiments, Pavlov paired the presence of the meat with the sound of a metronome (Comer, 2004). The sound of the metronome is called the conditioned stimulus (CS). After many such pairings, the sound of the metronome alone caused salivation, which is then called the conditioned response (CR).
http://nobelprize.org/medicine/educational/pavlov/images/serie2.gif
Following his initial discovery, Pavlov spent more than three decades studying the processes underlying classical conditioning. He and his associates identified four main processes: acquistion, extinction, generalization, and discrimination. (msn.encarta)
- Acquistion:
The acquistion phase is the initial learning of the conditioned response-for example, the dog learning to salivate at the sound of a bell.
The term extinction is used to describe the elimination of the conditioned response by repeatedly presenting the conditoned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus- for example, repeatedly ringing the bell without presenting food afterward.
- Generalization:
After an animal has learned a conditioned response to one stimulus, it may also respond to similar stimuli without further training- for example, using a different sounding bell.
- Discrimination:
Discrimination is the opposite of generalization in which an individual learns to produce a conditioned response to one stimulus but not to another stimulus that is similar- for example, a buzzer won't work like the bell.
John B. Watson
In 1920 to illustrate the principles of classical conditioning, John B. Watson carried out a controversial experiment on an young child known as Little Albert. Prior to the experiment, Little Albert showed no fear to things like rabbits, dogs, rats and even a burning newspaper. When Little Albert was about nine months of age, Watson and his assistant Rosalie Rayner tested Little Albert's response to loud noises by striking a hammer on an iron bar. As can be expected, Albert was startled, and he began to cry. To condition Albert to fear a white rat, Watson and Rayner presented the rat, followed by the loud sound of the hammer. After only seven pairings of the rat and loud noise, Albert began crying whenever the rat was presented.[1] To see film footage of the experiment view http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KxKfpKQzow8
Of course, one question most everyone asks is,"What happened to Little Albert?" Much has been speculated and talked about, but it took a couple of researchers to take on the task. What they found was that Little Albert's mother had been a nurse and Albert's real name was not Albert at all, but rather Douglas Merritte. Unfortunately, the story has a tragic ending. At six years of age our Albert died of hydrocephalus which may have been caused by meningitis. Because he died young, we will never know exactly how Little Albert would have turned out. Read more about the search for Little Albert here http://www.mindhacks.com/blog/2009/10/little_albert_lost_.html
Edwin B. Twitmyer
In the same year that Ivan Pavlov presented his renown publication on classical conditioning, Professor E.B. Twitmyer (1873-1943) of the University of Pennsylvania published the research of his dissertation. Twitmyer interest was in the patellar reflex, knee-jerk reaction (UCR) to the hammer tap (UCS). Because subjects complained of the startling effect of the tap, Twitmyer began preceding each with the ringing of a bell. Quite unintentionally, Twitmyer noticed a subject’s leg jerk with the mere ring of the bell. Twitmyer then duplicated this response in six other subjects. Unlike Pavlov’s report, however, Edwin B. Twitmyer’s remained relatively unnoticed. [2][3][4]
Roles for Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning is a major factor in real life. It's a fundamental part of all forms of animal training (including some forms of human training). Its primary use in human behavior is in dealing with habit formation, either trying (1) form good habits (exercising, liking good behavior rewards, or good school performance.) or (2) to break bad ones (smoking, overeating, etc.), including phobias.
The most common examples of classical conditioning seen in the educational environment are in situations where students exhibit phobias and anxieties, like "math anxiety," fear of failure,and general school phobia. Another example of classical conditioning in education is the rewarding of candy for right answers or good behavior. (Teachnet)
Classical conditioning works with advertising. For example, many beer ads prominently feature attractive young women wearing bikinis. The young women (unconditioned stimulus) naturally elicit a favorable, mildly aroused feeling (unconditioned response) in most men. The beer is simply associated with this effect. The same thing applies with the jingles and music that accompany many advertisements.
More on Classical Conditioning in Advertising
Rather than compete with Coca Cola based on taste, Pepsi's "Forever Young" commercials are an example of how Pepsi is trying to pair drinking Pepsi with feeling young again.
Check it Out:
Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuromarketing
Prior to the creation of the above commercials, in a study published in 2004, 67 people had their brains scanned while being given the "Pepsi Challenge", a blind taste test of Coca-Cola vs. Pepsi. In the blind taste test, half (50%)of the subjects chose Pepsi, and the other half chose Coke. In a 2nd test, when the subjects were told which brand they were drinking, 75% said that Coke tasted better. Cognitive Neuroscience examines the brain mechanisms underlying mental processes using functional neuroimaging tools that measure brain activation in response to mental processes. Neuromarketing is a field of marketing that studies consumers' response to marketing stimuli and matches that response to different areas of the brain. Researchers use technologies such as MRI’s to measure changes in activity in different parts of the brain, and other sensors to measure changes in one's physiological state (heart rate, respiratory rate, galvanic skin response). They do this in order to learn why consumers make the decisions they do, and what part of the brain is telling them to do it. Marketing analysts use neuromarketing to better measure a consumer's preference, as the verbal response given to the question, "Do you like this product?" may not always be the true answer since many of our preferences are unconscious. This knowledge helps marketers create products and services designed more effectively and marketing campaigns focused more on the brain's response. During the Pepsi Challenge, the participants brain activity also changed. In the first test, scientists found that people were using the part of the brain connected to reward and taste. In the 2nd test people, when people knew which brand they were drinking, they responded with the part of their brain connected to personality and image. (Frazier, Laurie, and Shalle Leeming. Lecture Ready 3. USA: Oxford UP, 2006) It is clear to see that having “lost” the taste test to Coke, the impact the neuroscience findings connecting preference to personality had in the development of their Forever Young ads.
Personal experiences with Classical Conditioning
(If anyone would like to add some of his/her experiences with Classical Conditioning, please feel free to add them here.)
In my high school Psychology class, the teacher conditioned the class to salivate whenever we heard her say Pavlov. She did this by having us suck on lemonade mix (VERY sour) whenever she said Pavlov's name, and after a while we would salivate after simply hearing the word.
Whenever I see the word artichokes I feel nauseous and scratchy. I once ordered a pizza with artichokes and cheese on it. I have never been allergic to artichokes before. Soon after I began to feel itchy and suddenly saw bumps appearing on my midsection and arms. I called the doctor and talked to his nurse. She asked me if they were square or circular. I said they were square. She said I had hives and to take benedryl.
Camille Unzicker
Whenever I hear the song Wichita Lineman by Glen Campbell, I always think of my husband. Before we were married (which was about the time this song came out), he worked as a lineman for Western Union.sjmorrisette
When I was over in Iraq, I had been conditioned to react to airplanes overhead. I was stationed near Baghdad International Airport and had to listen for explosions over the noise of incoming and outgoing airplanes. I became aware of my conditioning when I came home and was nervous for some reason. After I started a journal, I noticed I was nervous at times for no reason. Later, I learned it occurred when planes flew overhead. I live in Savoy and a flight path to Savoy airport is overhead my house. Now that I’m aware of this, in time the nervousness will extinguish because there would be no explosions in Savoy. P Graham
As a band director, I like to condition my students that when it is time to start a rehearsal by doing the same thing everyday. For example, during marching band, before each rehearsal and then at the end of each rehearsal I like to call the band to attention. This helps the students know what is expected at the beginning and the end. -Jeremiah Kramper-
I also appreciate the effects of classical conditioning on my band and chorus students. Routine and expectations allow my classes to run smoothly. Students know when it is ready to start class not only by the routine I exhibit, but by my actions. When I put my baton up, they know they better be ready to play, when I am standing next to the podium, they had better be ready to focus and listen to what is going to happen next. -Missy Legutki
This example has to do with two of my greatest loves, food and sports. My dad had taken my to my first baseball game when I was five years old. It was the South Bend White Sox verse the Lansing Lug nuts. I remember the game not for the baseball that was played but for the pretzel with cheese that had “doom” written on it from the start. For some reason, I really wanted one of the pretzels with the cheese that everyone was getting all around me. Well being the fat kid that I was I guess I ate it too quick and ended up throwing it up all over myself and the seat in front of me. It was not a pretty site. From this day on even the smell of the ballpark cheese that they seem to use everywhere makes me sick to my stomach. The unconditioned stimuli would be the terrible incident of throwing up the pretzel at the ballpark since that doesn’t normally happen. The conditioned stimuli are how every time now that I see or smell that cheese I get conditioned response of getting sick to my stomach. J. Simmons
I have been classically conditioned to feel comforted with the feeling of pressure under my lower lip. After playing my flute for many years I came to associate playing the flute with comfort and security. Although it took a long time for this to develop, it did eventually become an initial reaction for me to feel comforted and secure when playing the flute. In this example the UCS is playing the flute and the UCR is my feeling of comfort and security. (I know this is a stretch, but go with it.) Sometimes when I feel stressed as if my safety is being threatened, I will simply put my finger under my lower lip (where I would put my flute) and I instantly feel a little safer. The feeling of pressure under my lower lip (CS) now gives me the comfort and security (CR) I feel when I play the flute. -J. Blanken-Webb
My example goes back to when I was seven years old. My parents used to take us out to Burger King on Friday nights as a special treat. I usually ordered a hamburger Kid's Meal. One time, I became very nauseous while eating my hamburger. I remember staring at it and getting an overwhelming feeling of disgust. I was unable to finish eating the hamburger. I have not been able to eat a plain hamburger ever since that experience. In addition to my aversion to plain hamburgers, I generally avoid going into a Burger King. Just the smell of the place triggers my old memory, and I start to feel a little queasy. Strangely enough, this does not happen at McDonald's, or any other fast food place. In my case, I believe the unconditioned response would be the nausea resulting from staring at the hamburger, while the conditioned response would be the feeling of queasiness I experience when entering a Burger King establishment. -A. Peso
The smell of leaves and cool fall air elicits feelings of excitement and a bit of anxiety mimicking the feelings I used to experience going into a big cross country meet around the same time of year back in high school and college. -D. Whipple
I was stationed in Yuma Az. for a little over three years. During my time there I acquired quite the taste for Mexican food, more specifically hot salsa. At the time I could endure just about anything thing that someone could make and just the smell of salsa or chili sauce would make my mouth water. Now if I know my wife or mother is going to make Mexican food just thought of it will make my mouth water. I can be driving home for dinner and my mouth will be watering like I am one of Pavlov’s dogs. – David Troyer
Any pet owner will recognize these types of examples. If anyone on TV says the word "walk" my dog perks up and thinks it is directed to her. Similarly, if I move her leash or move the Milkbone box, it's walkies or snack time! And teachers will know this one- We have to be very careful of the words we use near the end of class. Sometimes even the word "OK" signals to students class is over and they start packing up their books. -KE Hamilton
When my boys were younger and got hurt, I would (obviously) speak calmly and soothingly and give them a popsicle while I bandaged whatever injury they had incurred. It would generally stop their crying and just made each of those many episodes so much easier for them (and me) to handle. When I took my middle son, Ben, to our family doctor for his mandatory kindergarten check-up, he needed some immunizations as well. After the nurse gave him his first shot, he looked up at me and said, “Where’s my popsicle?” Needless to say, we got one on the way home. In this anecdote, the conditioned stimuli (pain from injury) brought with it the conditioned response (crying). The unconditioned response was the expectation of the popsicle. CCross
Recently, I was driving across a bridge near my house when my 23 year old daughter told me that everytime she drives over a bridge she is overcome by an irrational fear that she is going to fall out of the car. I said "Samantha, when you were 3 we were driving over this bridge and you opened the door in the back seat. I pulled over and nothing bad actually happened but I told you "don't ever do that again or you could fall out of the car"" She has no memory of the actual event but has been terrified of bridges ever since! D.Plested
When I was 7 or 8, my dad finally let me sit in the front seat for a couple hour trip to Indy. My dad is a fisherman and loves to look out onto the water, even when he is driving. While dad was driving, we passed a long bridge and while we were on it, my dad starts looking at the water and not at the road. I screamed because my dad was heading straight for rail and we were, in my opinion, about 2 feet from hitting it and going over. He corrected the wheel and we were fine. However, I am now afraid to go over bridges due to this frightening experience! I still go white knuckled every time I cross a bridge. M. Bear
When I was seven, I thought I would be an excellent helper and carry in the groceries with my mother. My father had recently finished washing the vehicles, which made the garage floor wet. I was wearing flip-flops with low traction. I decided to show my strength and carry in the gallon of milk. As I was carrying the milk, my shoes acted like a suction to the wet garage floor and I slipped and fell. I busted my chin open and had to go to the hospital and get stitches. The doctor, who is well-known in this area, was not very kind that day. Every time I hear his name, I instantly flash backin my mind to a medical sheet being placed over my head with a hole cut out for my chin. Also, I am now cautious when I am walking and there is a wet surface with shoes that may suction to the ground. L. Storm
I have never thought about my classroom management behaviors as classical conditioning, but throughout a 50 minute period, I am conditioning students in several different ways. For example, I have some very chatty freshman, and they love to work in groups on assignments and projects. I tell them they can work with a partner of their choosing if they exhibit appropriate behaviors until we get to that point in the lesson. Sometimes they aren't well behaved and therefore they don't get to work in groups and other times they exceed my expectations and I do allow them to work in groups. Their behavior gives them a specific response that is a consistent response to their actions. M. Allen
When I was younger, I had a friend who accidentally triggered a fire alarm by leaning on it (This was before the new cases) and because I was around, everyone thought I did it. I was really scared of what might happen to me and until this day if there is a fire alarm in the area I won't stand anywhere near it. I am too afraid that it may go off, even though today they have plastic covers! M. Rezk
I still associate the smell of cigars and Bovril with first attending the football as a youngish boy with my dad. Likewise, feelings of panic and a rising heart rate often accompany a declaration from my girlfriend that "we need to talk", but maybe that's not entirely the same thing.
I grew up listening to country music with my parents. I can remember the pearl snaps my father would wear and the belts with the name of my mother. I still cannot hear the song, "Amarillo by Morning" by George Strait without thinking of my father. It's a pleasant memory and it makes me wish I was ten again. (M. Hooper-Mortensen, 2010)
I used to love to visit my grandparents in Hazel Crest, Illinois. This was when I was a child and living in Kentucky - so it was not very often. But on a few occasions, people would be burning their leaves - back when it was okay to do that - and I used to love that smell. To this day when I smell burning leaves - I think of my Grandparents house and a calm peaceful feeling comes over me. (K. Henrickson, 2010)
Classical Conditioning Video Resources
See a short three minute video created by Stella Bastone at George Brown College that explains the basics of classical conditioning here http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cP5lCleK-PM
See Philip Zimbardo explain classical conditioning in 4 minutes. The video includes actual film of Pavlov's experiments http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hhqumfpxuzI
Pavlov's Discovery of Classical Conditioning video outlining Pavlov's work http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CpoLxEN54ho&feature=related
Professor Sara M. House of Loyola University gives a real life example of classical conditioning http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ypCSoVhAyhI&NR=1
Little Albert Experiment A brief summary of John B. Watson's (in)famous Little Albert experiment, as told in Watson & Rayner's (1920) "Conditioned Emotional Reactions." by hawkeyteacher http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iYElUVByBGc
Classical Conditioning Humour/Fun
See a little classical conditioning humour on Mark Stivers' Blog "Saturday Cartoons." Just who is being conditioned? http://www.markstivers.com/wordpress/?p=67
In a episode of The Office, Jim uses classical conditioning to train Dwight with the start-up sound of his computer and Altoids http://vimeo.com/5371237
NBC Nightly News Anchor Brian Williams talks about the success of the product HeadOn http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PybKYHP5r60
Classical conditioning (Steven, John, and Won-Jin)--high school AP student's project http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uEVH6wMEUd8
Play the Pavlov's Dog Game at http://nobelprize.org/educational_games/medicine/pavlov/index.html
Classical Conditioning Cartoons
What happened to Little Albert? http://ucpsych.wordpress.com/2009/04/01/little-albert-1920-2009/ (Notice the date of posting!)
References
Alberto, P. & Troutman, A. C. (2003). Applied behavior analysis for teachers (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall.
Comer, Ronald J., (2004). Abnormal Psychology. 5th Edition. Worth Publishers, New York.
Coon, DJ. (1982 July18). Eponymy, obscurity, Twitmyer, and Pavlov. Journal of the history of the behavioral sciences. Retrieved on January 26, 2010 from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6749963
Edwin B. Twitmyer. Nationmaster Encyclopedia. Retrieved on January 26, 2010 from http://www.statemaster.com/encyclopedia/Edwin-B.-Twitmyer
Encarta, Microsoft Corporation, 2004.
Green, Christopher D. "Classics in the History of Psychology--Watson & Rayner (1920)" Retrieved January 26, 2010 from http://psychclassics.asu.edu/Watson/emotion.htm
Schlosberg, H. (1928, May 26). A study of the conditioned patellar reflex. Retrieved on January 26, 2010 from http://pages.stern.nyu.edu/~panos/tree/Schlosberg-thesis.pdf
The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Copyright 2003 by Houghlin Mifflin Co
Links
Links:
To find out more about Pavlov's theory of Behaviorism and it's impact in the classroom, please check out the following Behaviorism links:
http://moodle.ed.uiuc.edu/mod/glossary/view.php?id=899&mode=letter&hook=B&sortkey=&sortorder=
Wikipedia-(-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_conditioning)
Simple explanation of classical conditioning with visual (from Valdosta State University) http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/behsys/classcnd.html
Classical and Operant Conditioning Examples with Answers
Additional Reading
Classical conditioning Isidore Gormezano, William F. Prokasy, and Richard F. Thompson Publisher: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates
Handbook of Classical Conditioning Lavond, David G., Steinmetz, Joseph E. 2003, 472 p. Publisher: Springer
A Neuroscientist's Guide to Classical Conditioning Moore, John W. (Ed.) 2002, XV, 323 p. Publisher: Springer
Harris, Ben. "Whatever Happened to Little Albert?" Retrieved January 26, 20120 from http://htpprints.yorku.ca/archive/00000198/01/BHARRIS.HTM
