Adult Learning Theory
From WikEd
Descriptions, definitions, synonyms, organizer terms, types of
An adult is “a person who is fully grown or developed or a person who has reached the age of majority. Are adults and children different when it comes to learning? Does an adult learn the same way as a child or even a young adult? Most adults would answer no to questions such as these and that is where the study of Adult Learning Theory derived from.
Adult Learning theory arose out of the realization that adults—throughout their lives—engage in both formal and informal activities designed to satisfy a need or interest. However, adults clearly don’t learn like children do, primarily because they already possess a wealth of knowledge and experience. Theories of adult learning evolved from an initial focus on whether or not adults were truly capable of learning (compared with young people) to the processes adults used to learn. In the 1950s, researchers became interested in how adult learning differentiated from childhood learning. Finally, beginning in the sixties, three central theories of adult learning emerged: andragogy, self-directed learning, and transformational learning (Comings 2004).
Andragogy: In 1968, Malcolm Knowles published a theory which he described as “a new label and a new technology” (quoted in Comings 2004): Andragogy. With it, he attempted to show how adult learning (andragogy) was different from “pre-adult” learning (pedagogy). He based his theory on five assumptions about the adult learner. The adult learner: 1. “has an independent self-concept and…can direct his or her own learning” 2. “has accumulated a reservoir of life experiences that is a rich resource for learning” 3. “has learning needs closely related to changing social roles” 4. “is problem centered and interested in the immediate application of knowledge, and” 5. “is motivated to learn by internal rather than external factors” (Merriam 2001) Using these assumptions, Knowles suggested the creation of an educational planning system wherein instructor and learners develop, carry out, and critique an educational experience. Ultimately, androgogy’s power as an adult learning theory derives from its list of adult learner characteristics rather than an ability to be used as a tool for improving adult learning (Comings 2004; Merriam 2001).
Self-Directed Learning: Self-Directed Learning (SDL) originated as an off-shoot of andragogy’s first assumption: the adult learner “has an independent self-concept and…can direct his or her own learning” (Comings 2004). In 1971, Allen Tough published as study showing that 90% of study participants spent an average of 100 the previous year in “self-planned learning projects.” These projects lacked any formal learning facilitator and dealt with solving problems at home and work, and with pursuing personal interests. Initial focus on SDL emphasized a series of activities that the learner undertakes—from initial discovery to planning to implementation to evaluation. However, as SDL theory developed, researchers began to appreciate the interrelationship of the activities over the course of the learning. In other words, SDL was not necessarily a linear process (Comings 2004).
Transformational Learning: As Merriam has pointed out, “Andragogy, and to some extent self-directed learning, is largely about the personal attributes of adult learners as opposed to children. Transformational learning is more about the cognitive process of [adult] learning. Simply put, transformational learning is how we create meaning out of knowledge and experience as we go through life (quoted in Comings 2004). Transformational learning also emphasizes the idea that learning isn’t cumulative, it’s iterative—i.e., learning is a constant process of revision in the face of new knowledge and experience. In 1991, Jack Mezirow enumerated a ten-step process in which adult learners engage when faced with a dilemma. The idea is that dilemmas force adults to think beyond norms, traditions, stereotypes, beliefs, etc. in order to arrive at new worldviews (Comings 2004).
Application in classrooms
When it comes to education, adults and children learn differently. Adult Learning Theory is a school of though that is trying to identify exactly how the different age groups learn differently and what is the best approach to educating adults. However, when it comes to applying these theories in a classroom, one runs into difficulties.
Andragogy is a list of characteristics either resident or required for successful adult learning. It should be used to formulate necessary preconditions for adult learning. Andragogy should be applied to classes more in the development stages, not in the classroom. If curriculum developers take the desires of the adult learner into consideration, the students will be more receptive to the course and will gain much more from it.
The best example of Self-Directed Learning is taking classes on-line, since “adults have an independent self-concept and…can direct [their] own learning.” A lot of adults do not have the time or desire to spend hours upon hours in a classroom. They are working full time jobs and raising families. On-line courses offer them the option of learning at their own pace and on their own schedule.
Transformative Learning causes the adult to face a new reality which starts the ten-step process in motion. A good example of this would be a teacher/instructor who has his or her students take a test or a performance evaluation at the beginning of a course to evaluate knowledge that students should have prior to coming to the course. Since most students have preconceived notions of how an academic course should proceed—notions that rarely include an initial diagnostic test, their worlds are disrupted. Theoretically, this disruption provides the impulse to learn and thereby avoid similar disruptions later in life—at least as regards the course’s material.
Evidence of effectiveness
Adult learning is a fairly new field of study, but it is being broadly embraced by learning institutions. This is evident in the different educational avenues offered to adult learners. Not long ago, the only way to get a college degree was to go to a university and sit in classes all day. Slowly universities began to adapt by adding night courses, then off campus courses, and now many universities offer their degrees on-line. Educational institutions have realized that adult learners have different needs than other learners. This varies from when they can take classes to what motivates them to learn and what teaching styles work best for them. This approach to adult learning is a direct offshoot of self-directed-learning.
Critics and their rationale
Andragogy: It’s not a theory; it’s a list of characteristics and therefore can’t be used to critique or shape a learning experience (only those participating in it).
Self-Directed Learning—Models showing the workings of this learning theory are as variable as there are people; everyone approaches learning differently. Also, researchers argue over learning goals: what should people direct their learning towards?
Transformative Learning—This theory lacks attention to context and has a strong off-putting social justice agenda.
Alternative explanations due to Diversity considerations
When teaching adults all educators must consider the nationality of their students and teachers. When teaching adults this can be even more of a consideration due the different life experiences that a person has. These can vary widely depending on what country or social status a student comes from. Educators must take these factors into consideration when developing their curriculum and setting up their classrooms.
Signed “life experiences”, testimonies and stories
References and other links of interest
Comings, John, et al.. “Review of Adult Learning and Literacy.” National Center for the Study of Adult Learning and Literacy. 4 May 2009. http://books.google.com/books?id=Pbhakp6KD3gC&pg=RA2-PT1&lpg=RA2-PT1&dq=volume+4+opens+with+an+overview+of+significant+recent+developments+inthe+field&source=bl&ots=4sTVtURKh2&sig=YYihFNvR2W9-LwxtBmAa7XCvmpo&hl=en&ei=EgcLSqKnIJPIMqXF7dgL&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1#PRA2-PA199,M1>.
Merriam, Sharan B. “Andragogy and Self-Directed Learning: Pillars of Adult Learning Theory.” 4 May 2009. <http://www.fsu.edu/~elps/ae/download/ade5385/Merriam.pdf>.
Mezirow, Jack. “Epistemology of Transformative Learning”. 4 May 2009. <http://transformativelearningbermuda.com/uploads/Mezirow_EpistemologyTLC.pdf>.
<http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/methods/technlgy/te10lk12.htm>.
